Montenegro's Complex History: Ottoman, Austrian-Hungarian Influences

The history of Montenegro has been tumultuous, with various empires vying for control of the region. Before the arrival of the Slavs in the Balkans in the 6th century AD, the area now known as Montenegro was inhabited primarily by the Illyrians. During the Bronze Age, the southernmost Illyrian tribe, the Illirii, lived near Lake Skadar on the border of Albania and Montenegro. Large portions of Montenegro fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire from 1496 to 1878, with parts also controlled by the Republic of Venice. In the early 20th century, Montenegro was a kingdom, ruled by King Nicholas I, who had initiated several modernising reforms and pursued a pro-Serbian policy. During World War I, Montenegro allied with the Triple Entente, leading to its occupation by Austria-Hungary from 1916 to 1918. This occupation, which lasted until the end of World War I, was part of a broader campaign by Austria-Hungary to establish its rule in the Balkans and prevent the extension of Russian influence.

The Kingdom of Montenegro

The country became a kingdom in 1910 when Prince Nicholas of Montenegro proclaimed the Kingdom of Montenegro in Cetinje, elevating the country from the rank of Principality. King Nicholas I had ruled the country as a prince since 1860 and had initiated several modernising reforms at the beginning of the 20th century, such as introducing a constitution and a new currency, the Montenegrin perper.

Montenegro joined the First Balkan War in 1912, hoping to win a share of the last Ottoman-controlled areas of Rumelia. They made territorial gains by splitting Sandžak with Serbia in 1913 but had to abandon the newly captured city of İşkodra (modern-day Shkodër) to the new state of Albania. When the Second Balkan War broke out in 1913, Montenegro sided with Serbia against Bulgaria.

During World War I, Montenegro allied itself with the Triple Entente, in line with King Nicholas' pro-Serbian policy. As a result, Austria-Hungary occupied Montenegro from 1916 to 1918. In 1918, coastal areas were also occupied by French and Italian troops. Montenegro lost 20,000 soldiers in the war, which was 40% of all mobilized soldiers and 10% of the total population.

On 20 July 1917, the Corfu Declaration foreshadowed the unification of Montenegro with Serbia. On 26 November 1918, the Podgorica Assembly, an elected body claiming to represent the Montenegrin people, unanimously deposed King Nicholas I and unified Montenegro with Serbia. On 1 December 1918, Serbia and Montenegro together formed a major part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia). This unification with Serbia lasted, through various successor states, for almost 88 years, ending in 2006.

The Austro-Hungarian occupation of Montenegro

On August 9, 1914, the Kingdom of Montenegro entered World War I, siding with the Triple Entente and fighting alongside the Kingdom of Serbia against Austria-Hungary. In October 1915, Bulgaria entered the war, and by December, the Central Powers had completed their conquest of Serbia. This set the stage for the Austro-Hungarian campaign in Montenegro.

The campaign began on January 6, 1916, with the Austro-Hungarian forces targeting the remnants of the Serbian army that had retreated into Montenegro. The Montenegrin Army, which had fought alongside the Serbs, resisted the Austro-Hungarian invasion. The Austro-Hungarian forces, under the command of Franz Conrad von Hotzendorf, launched a massive artillery barrage and deployed around 50,000 troops, including Austrian and Bosnian soldiers. Within 48 hours, the Montenegrins had been driven from their fortresses at Mount Lovcen on the Adriatic Sea and retreated to their capital, Cetinje, which fell on January 11.

By January 16, 1916, the entire country of Montenegro was occupied and had capitulated on January 23. King Nikola I and his government fled into exile, first to Italy and then to France. The Austro-Hungarians set up a General Government, modelled on their occupation of Serbia, which required over 40,000 troops to control the mountainous and impassable terrain. The occupation lasted until the end of World War I in November 1918, after which Montenegro became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

During the occupation, the Austro-Hungarian authorities faced challenges in controlling the country due to its rugged geography and the emergence of guerrilla movements. Additionally, the occupation did not bring significant economic gains, as Montenegro struggled to feed its own population. Montenegro suffered heavy losses during the war, with approximately 20,000 soldiers killed, representing 40% of mobilized troops and 10% of the total population.

Montenegro's alliance with the Kingdom of Serbia

Montenegro was occupied by Austria-Hungary from 1916 to 1918 during World War I. The Kingdom of Montenegro entered the war on the side of the Triple Entente, fighting alongside the Kingdom of Serbia against Austria-Hungary.

Montenegro's alliance with Serbia was further solidified after the war, when the two kingdoms officially unified. Here is a detailed account of Montenegro's alliance with the Kingdom of Serbia:

The Corfu Declaration

On July 20, 1917, the Corfu Declaration foreshadowed the unification of Montenegro and Serbia. This declaration was the result of negotiations between the Serbian government-in-exile, the Serbian opposition, and the London-based Yugoslav Committee, which included prominent Serb, Croatian, and Slovenian leaders advocating for a pan-Yugoslav movement. While the official Montenegrin government-in-exile of King Nikola I rejected the Corfu Declaration, another exile group, the Montenegrin Committee for National Unification, supported it.

The Podgorica Assembly

On November 26, 1918, the Podgorica Assembly, an elected body claiming to represent the Montenegrin people, took a significant step toward unification. They unanimously voted to depose King Nikola I, who was still in exile, and proclaimed the unification of Montenegro with Serbia. This assembly was a pivotal moment in the alliance between the two kingdoms, setting the stage for their future together.

Formation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes

Just three days after the Podgorica Assembly, on December 1, 1918, Serbia and Montenegro officially formed a significant part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, also known as Yugoslavia. This unification brought together the two kingdoms, creating a powerful alliance in the region.

The Aftermath of Unification

The unification of Montenegro and Serbia lasted for almost 88 years, ending in 2006. During this period, the alliance evolved through various successor states. While King Nikola I initially supported unification, hoping to play a pivotal role in the greater state, he later switched to promoting Montenegrin nationalism and opposing the union with Serbia after being deposed. This shift in his stance highlights the complexities of the alliance and the ongoing power dynamics between the two kingdoms.

In summary, Montenegro's alliance with the Kingdom of Serbia was a significant development in the region, leading to their unification and the formation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. The two kingdoms fought together during World War I against Austria-Hungary and solidified their alliance through the Corfu Declaration and the Podgorica Assembly, ultimately uniting as a powerful force in the Balkans.

The Montenegrin campaign of World War I

The Kingdom of Montenegro was a monarchy in southeastern Europe, present-day Montenegro, during the tumultuous period of time on the Balkan Peninsula leading up to and during World War I. It was officially a constitutional monarchy but was absolutist in practice.

During World War I, Montenegro was occupied by Austria-Hungary from 1916 to 1918. The campaign to occupy Montenegro was known as the Montenegrin campaign and was a part of the Serbian campaign. The Austro-Hungarian occupation of Montenegro began on January 6, 1916, against the parts of the Serbian army that had retreated into the country. By January 1916, the Serbian Army had been defeated by an Austrian-Hungarian, German, and Bulgarian invasion. The remnants of the Serbian army had retreated through Montenegro and Albania and were being evacuated by allied ships from December 12, first to Italy and later to Corfu.

The next phase of the campaign began on January 8, 1916, with a massive artillery bombardment of Montenegrin positions on Mount Lovćen. The Austro-Hungarians utilized their naval power, with the coastal battleship Budapest providing support. By January 10, the Austro-Hungarian troops had taken the Lovćen Pass and the adjacent heights. The heavy bombardments of Mount Lovćen broke the morale of the defenders, and the mountain was in Austrian hands by January 11.

On January 13, 1916, the vanguard of the Austrian army reached the Montenegrin capital, Cetinje. Negotiations for an armistice began, but King Nicholas I of Montenegro initially refused to sign the harsh terms and fled to Albania and then to Italy on January 19. He issued an order to Janko Vukotić, demanding that the army continue to fight and retreat with the Serbians to Albania and Corfu. However, the government ministers who remained in Montenegro issued a proclamation for the Montenegrin armed forces to surrender, and the country capitulated on January 23.

During the following weeks, the troops of the 3rd Austro-Hungarian Army occupied the rest of Montenegro and invaded Albania, taking Scutari and Durazzo by the end of February. The evacuation of the Serbian army was completed by February 10. The Austro-Hungarian occupation of Montenegro lasted until the end of World War I in November 1918, after which the country became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

Montenegro's independence

Ottoman Rule and Semi-Autonomy

Montenegro was once inhabited by people known as Illyrians before the arrival of the Slav peoples in the 6th and 7th centuries CE. During the Early Medieval period, three principalities were located in the territory: Duklja in the south, Travunia in the west, and Rascia proper in the north. The country fell under Ottoman Empire rule, but in 1696, it gained semi-autonomy under the rule of the House of Petrović-Njegoš, first as a theocracy and later as a secular principality.

Recognition at the Congress of Berlin

Kingdom of Montenegro

In 1910, Prince Nicholas of Montenegro proclaimed the Kingdom of Montenegro, elevating the country from the rank of Principality. During this period, Montenegro joined the First Balkan War in 1912 and made territorial gains by splitting Sandžak with Serbia. However, they had to abandon newly captured areas to the new state of Albania due to pressure from the Great Powers.

World War I and Occupation

During World War I, Montenegro allied itself with the Triple Entente and fought against Austria-Hungary, resulting in the occupation of the country by Austro-Hungarian forces from 1916 to 1918. King Nikola I and his government fled into exile, and the occupying power established a General Government.

World War II and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia

During World War II, Montenegro experienced occupation once again, this time by Italian forces, who established a puppet Kingdom of Montenegro. After the war, Montenegro became a republic within the Yugoslav Federation and underwent several name changes, reflecting its changing status within the federation.

Breakup of Yugoslavia and Federation with Serbia

With the breakup of Yugoslavia, Montenegro and Serbia proclaimed a federation together. However, in June 2006, Montenegro declared its independence from Serbia following an independence referendum, creating the independent nations of Montenegro and Serbia as they exist today. This referendum was approved by 55.5% of voters, narrowly passing the required 55% threshold. The Serbian parliament recognised Montenegro's independence two days after the declaration.

Post-Independence Challenges and NATO Membership

The early years of independence were marked by an economic boom, but this was followed by a contraction in 2009 due to sharp declines in European bank credit, real estate sales, and direct foreign investment. Montenegro faced continuing controversy over the status of Serbs within the country and the distinction between the Montenegrin and Serbian languages. In recent years, Montenegro has sought to join the European Union and became a member of NATO in 2017, despite opposition from Russia.

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