Luxembourg-Austria: A Historical Union?

Luxembourg has a rich history that dates back to the Paleolithic Age, about 35,000 years ago. The country has been ruled by several dynasties and has passed through many hands over the centuries. After the Treaty of Verdun in 843, Luxembourg became part of the Kingdom of Middle Francia, then the Kingdom of Lotharingia, and finally the Duchy of Lorraine, which was a state of the Holy Roman Empire. In 963, Siegfried, Count of the Ardennes, acquired Lucilinburhuc (now Luxembourg Castle) through an exchange with St. Maximin's Abbey in Trier, and the recorded history of Luxembourg began. In 1083, Siegfried's great-grandson, Conrad I, became the first to call himself the Count of Luxembourg, establishing the independent County of Luxembourg within the Holy Roman Empire. In 1312, the House of Luxembourg rose to power when Henry VII became the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1443, the House of Luxembourg suffered a succession crisis, and the Duchy of Luxembourg became a possession of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, marking the start of nearly 400 years of foreign rule. Luxembourg came under Habsburg rule in 1477 and was annexed by France in the 18th century. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Luxembourg was restored and became a member state of the German Confederation, with William I of the Netherlands as its head of state. In 1867, Luxembourg regained its independence after the Luxembourg Crisis. However, it was occupied by Germany during World War I and World War II, and it was only in 1945 that Luxembourg abandoned its neutrality and became a founding member of NATO and the United Nations.

Luxembourg was part of the German Confederation in 1871

Luxembourg was indeed part of the German Confederation in 1871, though it had been a member since 1815. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was formed in 1815 after the defeat of Napoleon, and it was placed under the rule of William I of the Netherlands. However, Luxembourg was also admitted to the German Confederation, with Prussia responsible for its defence.

Luxembourg's inclusion in the German Confederation was largely due to its strategic importance to Prussia, France, and the Netherlands. Luxembourg City was home to some of the most impressive fortifications in the world, giving the city the nickname "Gibraltar of the North". The fortress was manned by Prussian troops, and Luxembourg was also a member of the German Customs Union (Zollverein).

In the mid-19th century, Luxembourg fell further into the sphere of German influence, particularly after the creation of a separate ruling house in 1890. However, Luxembourg's independence was recognised in 1867 after the Luxembourg Crisis, a diplomatic dispute between France and Prussia over the political status of Luxembourg. The crisis was resolved by the Treaty of London, which guaranteed Luxembourg's perpetual independence and neutrality. As a result, the Prussian garrison was withdrawn, and the fortress walls were pulled down.

Despite its independence, Luxembourg remained in the German Customs Union, and its economy was heavily influenced by Germany. The opening of the German market and the expansion of Luxembourg's railway network from 1855 to 1875 contributed to the development of Luxembourg's steel industry. By the end of the 19th century, Luxembourg had developed its own national identity, with the people referring to themselves as "Luxembourgers".

It was in personal union with the Netherlands

Luxembourg was indeed once part of Austria. After the Eighty Years' War, Luxembourg became part of the Southern Netherlands, which passed to the Austrian line of the Habsburg dynasty in 1713. However, this union was short-lived, as Luxembourg was occupied by Revolutionary France in 1795.

After the fall of Napoleon, the 1815 Vienna Congress transformed Luxembourg into a Grand Duchy in personal union with the Netherlands. This union lasted until 1890, when the crown of the Netherlands, which was not bound by the 1783 Nassau Family Pact, passed to Wilhelmina, the eldest daughter of William III. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, on the other hand, passed to Adolphe, the dispossessed Duke of Nassau and head of the branch of Nassau-Weilburg, due to the semi-Salic law established by the pact, which allowed inheritance by females only upon the extinction of male members of the dynasty.

During the personal union with the Netherlands, Luxembourg was not treated as an independent state by William I, who did not take into account the political, economic, and religious aspects of the southern provinces. This caused discontent among the Belgians, who started the Belgian Revolution in 1830, with the people of Luxembourg joining shortly afterward. As a result, Luxembourg was partitioned for the third time, ceding its predominantly Oil-speaking geographically larger western part to Belgium. This reduced the size of Luxembourg by more than half, turning it into a predominantly German-speaking state.

In 1842, Luxembourg joined the German Customs Union (Zollverein), which led to the development of its steel industry and the expansion of its railway network. In 1848, Luxembourg adopted a liberal Constitution, which limited the royal prerogatives. However, William III, who succeeded his father in 1849, considered the Constitution too liberal and imposed an amendment in 1856, reaffirming the monarchic principle.

The Luxembourg Crisis of 1867, a diplomatic dispute and confrontation between France and Prussia over the political status of Luxembourg, was another important step toward full independence. The crisis almost led to war between the two powers but was peacefully resolved by the Treaty of London, which guaranteed Luxembourg's neutrality and independence.

In summary, Luxembourg was in personal union with the Netherlands from 1815 to 1890, during which it experienced political and economic developments, as well as crises that ultimately led to its independence.

The Luxembourg Crisis of 1867 led to a treaty confirming its neutrality

The Luxembourg Crisis of 1867 was a diplomatic dispute and confrontation between France and Prussia over the political status of Luxembourg. The crisis was sparked by French Emperor Napoleon III's attempt to buy Luxembourg from Dutch King William III. This prompted Prussia to threaten war, as it sought to maintain Dutch dominance over Luxembourg, which was independent de jure, but not de facto.

The crisis almost led to war between the two powers, but was peacefully resolved by the Treaty of London, also known as the Second Treaty of London, which confirmed Luxembourg's independence and neutrality. The treaty was signed on 11 May 1867 by representatives of the great powers of Europe, including Austria-Hungary, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Kingdom of Belgium, the Kingdom of Italy, and the Russian Empire.

The Treaty of London had wide-reaching consequences for Luxembourg and European relations. It reaffirmed the personal union between the Netherlands and Luxembourg under the House of Orange-Nassau, which lasted until 1890. It also led to the withdrawal of the Prussian Army garrison from Luxembourg, which had been stationed there since 1815.

To ensure Luxembourg's neutrality, the treaty stipulated that the westward fortifications of Luxembourg City, known as the "Gibraltar of the North", be demolished. The treaty further affirmed that Luxembourg would remain in the German customs union, the Zollverein, and that the parties that did not sign the earlier treaty would become guarantors of Luxembourg's neutrality.

The Luxembourg Crisis demonstrated the influence of public opinion on government actions and foreshadowed the growing opposition between France and Prussia, which would culminate in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. It also marked an important step towards full independence for Luxembourg, allowing it to develop independently and foster the emergence of its steel industry.

The Duchy of Luxembourg was annexed by France in the 18th century

The French occupation of Luxembourg began during the War of the First Coalition, when Revolutionary France invaded the Austrian Netherlands and Luxembourg. Most of the Duchy was conquered relatively quickly, and the French Revolutionary Army committed many atrocities and pillaged against the Luxembourgish civilian population and abbeys. The most infamous examples include the massacres of Differdange and Dudelange, as well as the destruction of the abbeys of Clairefontaine, Echternach, and Orval.

However, the Fortress of Luxembourg resisted for nearly seven months before the Austrian forces holding it surrendered. Luxembourg's long defence led Lazare Carnot to call it "the best fortress in the world, except Gibraltar", giving rise to the city's nickname, the "Gibraltar of the North".

During the French occupation, new French officials in Luxembourg implemented many republican reforms, including the principle of laicism, which caused an outcry in strongly Catholic Luxembourg. French was also implemented as the only official language, and Luxembourgish people were barred from all civil services. When the French Army introduced military duty for the local population, riots broke out, culminating in 1798 when Luxembourgish peasants started a rebellion. Although the French suppressed this revolt, known as the Klëppelkrich, it had a profound effect on the historical memory of the country and its citizens.

Nevertheless, many republican ideas from this era continue to have a lasting effect on Luxembourg. For example, the Napoleonic Code Civil, introduced in 1804, is still valid today.

Luxembourg was ruled by the House of Habsburg in the 15th century

The House of Habsburg ruled Luxembourg from 1477 until 1795, with a brief period of French rule from 1794. During this time, Luxembourg was passed between the Austrian and Spanish lines of the Habsburg dynasty.

In 1477, Luxembourg was ruled by the Austrian line of the Habsburgs, who inherited the Duchy from the House of Burgundy. The House of Burgundy had ruled Luxembourg since 1443, when it was captured by Philip the Good. The Duchy was incorporated into the Burgundian state and then the Low Countries.

In 1506, Luxembourg came under Spanish rule, which lasted until 1714. During this period, Luxembourg was known as the Spanish Netherlands. In 1714, Luxembourg returned to Austrian rule, which lasted until 1794.

Luxembourg was annexed by France in 1795, becoming the 'Département des Forêts'. This period of French rule lasted until 1815 and brought about significant changes in Luxembourg, shaping its development in the 19th century.

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