The Unfair Loss Of Germany And Austria-Hungary's Land

The question of whether it was fair that Germany and Austria-Hungary lost land is a complex one. After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles, signed on 28 June 1919, stripped Germany of 65,000 square kilometres of territory and 7 million people. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was also dissolved, with the remaining territories falling into the composition of existing or newly formed states. This dissolution was formalised in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with Austria in September 1919 and the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary in June 1920.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire had been weakened by a widening gap between Hungarian and Austrian interests, as well as internal social contradictions. The empire was a multi-national constitutional monarchy consisting of two sovereign states with a single monarch. As a result of these differences, the empire began to disintegrate during World War I, with nationalist movements within the empire demanding full independence. The Allies encouraged these breakaway demands, further contributing to the empire's collapse.

The Treaty of Trianon defined the current borders of Hungary, resulting in a loss of approximately 72% of its land stake and two-thirds of its inhabitants compared to the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary. This included the loss of several majority Hungarian areas, which fuelled Hungarian irredentism and the desire to regain control over these territories. Similarly, Germany lost 13% of its territory, with some German-populated areas being ceded to neighbouring countries.

While the loss of land for Germany and Austria-Hungary may seem unfair, it is important to consider the context of World War I and the desire of nationalist movements within these empires to form their own independent states. The treaties that followed the war sought to redefine national borders and establish new states, which ultimately contributed to a more fragmented Europe.

The dissolution of Austria-Hungary

The Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed rapidly in the autumn of 1918. Leftist and pacifist political movements organised strikes in factories, and uprisings in the army became commonplace. The war effort had caused severe food shortages in Vienna as early as 1916, and by the spring of 1918, the majority of people across central Europe lived in a state of advanced misery. The summer of 1918 saw both a drop in food supply and the onset of the 1918 flu pandemic, which killed at least 20 million people worldwide. Society was exhausted and yearned for peace.

As the Imperial economy collapsed into hardship and starvation, the Austro-Hungarian army lost its morale. Nationalists within the empire became embittered as civil rights were routinely suspended, and different national groups were treated with varying degrees of contempt. The Italian offensive in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto on 24 October 1918 marked the start of rebellion for the numerous ethnicities that made up the multiethnic empire. The Emperor had lost much of his power to rule as his realm disintegrated.

On 14 October 1918, the Austro-Hungarian foreign minister asked for an armistice based on President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points. Two days later, Emperor Karl I issued a proclamation, altering the empire into a federal union to give ethnic groups decentralisation and representation. However, on 18 October, the United States Secretary of State, Robert Lansing, replied that autonomy for the nationalities was no longer enough. The Lansing note was, in effect, the death certificate of Austria-Hungary.

On 17 October 1918, the Hungarian Parliament voted in favour of terminating the union with Austria. Count Mihály Károlyi, a prominent opponent of the continued union, seized power in the Aster Revolution on 31 October. Karl I was forced to appoint Károlyi as his Hungarian prime minister, and one of Károlyi's first acts was to repudiate the compromise agreement, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian state.

By the end of October, there was nothing left of the Habsburg realm but its majority-German Danubian and Alpine provinces. Karl's last Austrian prime minister, Heinrich Lammasch, concluded that Karl's position was untenable, and on 11 November, Karl issued a carefully worded proclamation in which he recognised the Austrian people's right to determine the form of the state. He also renounced his right to participate in Austrian affairs of state and released Austrian officials from their oath of loyalty to him. Two days later, he issued a similar proclamation for Hungary.

The Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, signed on 10 September 1919, declared that the Austro-Hungarian Empire was to be dissolved. The treaty included 'war reparations' of large sums of money, directed towards the Allies, as well as provisions for the liquidation of the Austro-Hungarian Bank. Cisleithanian Austria had to face significant territorial losses, amounting to over 60 percent of the prewar Austrian Empire's territory. The treaty also led to the creation of several new states, including Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and the First Austrian Republic.

The Treaty of Trianon, signed on 4 June 1920, formally terminated the state of war between Hungary and most of the Allied Powers. The treaty is mostly famous for the territorial changes induced on Hungary and recognising its new international borders after the First World War. Post-1920 Hungary became a landlocked state that included 93,073 square kilometres (35,936 sq mi), 28% of the 325,411 square kilometres (125,642 sq mi) that had constituted the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary. The kingdom had a population of 7.6 million, 36% compared to the pre-war kingdom's population of 20.9 million. The treaty limited Hungary's army to 35,000 officers and men, and the Austro-Hungarian Navy ceased to exist.

The Treaty of Trianon defined the current borders of Hungary and, compared to the claims of the pre-war Kingdom, post-Trianon Hungary had approximately 72% less land stake and about two-thirds fewer inhabitants, almost 5 million of whom were of Hungarian ethnicity. However, only 54% of the inhabitants of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary were Hungarians before World War I. Several municipalities that had purely ethnic Hungarian populations were excluded from post-Trianon Hungary, and five of the pre-war kingdom's ten largest cities were drawn into other countries. Almost 3 million ethnic Hungarians remained outside the borders of post-Trianon Hungary.

The loss of land by Germany and Austria-Hungary was a result of the growth of internal social contradictions and the separation of different parts of the empire. The Austro-Hungarian Empire had also been weakened over time by a widening gap between Hungarian and Austrian interests. The loss of land was formalised through the Treaty of Versailles, which imposed strict conditions on Germany, and the treaties of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and Trianon, which formalised the dissolution of Austria-Hungary and established the new borders of Austria and Hungary, respectively.

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867

The Compromise reorganised the lands of the House of Habsburg as a real union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, headed by a single monarch. The Austrian and Hungarian states were governed by separate parliaments and prime ministers, but they conducted unified diplomatic and defence policies. Ministries of foreign affairs and defence were maintained under the monarch's direct authority, as was a third finance ministry responsible for financing the two "common" portfolios.

The Compromise restored the territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Hungary and its old historic constitution. It also re-established the Hungarian parliament, which had been the supreme legislative power in Hungary since the 12th century. The Hungarian legal and judicial systems were also restored, and the country's independent customs system was reinstated.

The Compromise was intended to fix the problems faced by a multi-national state while maintaining the benefits of a large state. However, it still faced internal pressures, as the majority of Hungarians felt they had only accepted it under coercion. The Compromise's supporters, known as the Deák Party, held office first but soon faced financial and personal difficulties. They were replaced by the Liberal Party, which held office for nearly 30 years. During this time, there was mounting friction with Vienna over the army, economic provisions, and Hungarian participation in the National Bank.

The Kingdom of Hungary's territorial losses

The Kingdom of Hungary suffered significant territorial losses in the aftermath of World War I. The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, of which Hungary was a part, was catalysed by the war, the 1918 crop failure, starvation, and an economic crisis. The Austro-Hungarian Empire had already been weakened by the widening gap between Hungarian and Austrian interests, and the war accelerated its collapse.

The Kingdom of Hungary lost approximately 72% of its land, including:

• Part of Transylvania, which became part of Romania
• Carpathian Ruthenia, which became part of Czechoslovakia
• Most of Burgenland, which became part of Austria
• Međimurje and the Slovene March, which became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia)

The territorial losses of the Kingdom of Hungary continued to be a source of resentment in the country, with the perceived humiliation of the Treaty of Trianon becoming a dominant theme in inter-war Hungarian politics.

The impact of the Treaty of Trianon

The Treaty of Trianon was signed on 4 June 1920, concluding World War I and officially ending the state of war between the Allies and the Kingdom of Hungary. The treaty was signed at the Trianon Palace at Versailles, France, by representatives of Hungary on one side and the Allied Powers on the other.

The Treaty of Trianon had a profound impact on Hungary, resulting in significant territorial, demographic and economic changes. Here are some key impacts of the treaty:

• Territorial Loss: Hungary lost approximately two-thirds of its pre-war territory, including historic regions such as Transylvania, Slovakia, Vojvodina, parts of Croatia, Slovenia, Ruthenia, Burgenland and Banat. This loss of territory left Hungary landlocked and significantly reduced its political and economic influence in the region.
• Population Displacement: The treaty led to the displacement of a substantial number of ethnic Hungarians, with approximately 3.3 million Hungarians finding themselves living in neighbouring countries. This created a sense of resentment and fuelled irredentist sentiments among Hungarians, who felt that their historical character and cultural unity had been violated.
• Economic Disruption: The loss of territory also disrupted Hungary's economy, as many established industries and infrastructure elements were now located outside its borders. The country faced challenges in transforming its economy and suffered from a decline in industrial and agricultural production.
• Political Consequences: The treaty altered the political landscape of Central Europe, leading to the emergence of new nation-states such as Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and an enlarged Romania. It also fuelled ethnic tensions and conflicts, with nationalist movements seeking to revise the treaty's provisions.
• Military Restrictions: The treaty imposed restrictions on Hungary's military capabilities, limiting its army to 35,000 men and prohibiting heavy artillery, tanks and an air force. This significantly weakened Hungary's military power and contributed to its vulnerability in the region.
• National Humiliation: For Hungarians, the treaty was perceived as a national humiliation and a violation of their historical rights. The loss of territory and population fuelled a sense of bitterness and resentment, with phrases like "No, no, never!" and "Return everything!" becoming rallying cries in Hungarian politics.
• Long-term Effects: The impact of the Treaty of Trianon continued to shape Hungarian politics and diplomacy for decades. It contributed to Hungary's decision to side with Nazi Germany during World War II, as Adolf Hitler offered the return of lost territories. Even today, the treaty's legacy influences Hungarian politics, with debates around citizenship for extraterritorial Hungarians and the introduction of a "status law" to provide benefits to ethnic Hungarians living in neighbouring countries.

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