Enlightened Despotism: Austria's Attempt At Progressive Rule

Enlightened absolutism, also known as enlightened despotism, refers to the conduct and policies of European absolute monarchs during the 18th and early 19th centuries who were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment. One such monarch was Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of the Habsburg lands and Austria from 1780 to 1790. Joseph II was a proponent of enlightened despotism, but his commitment to modernising reforms, such as religious tolerance and the abolition of censorship, ultimately led to significant opposition and his inability to fully implement his programs.

Was enlightened despotism attempted in Austria?

Enlightened absolutism, also called enlightened despotism, refers to the conduct and policies of European absolute monarchs during the 18th and early 19th centuries who were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment. These rulers believed that they could use their authority to promote rationality, justice, and education, while still maintaining absolute power.

In Austria, Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of the Habsburg lands from 1780 to 1790, was a proponent of enlightened despotism. He was at ease with Enlightenment ideas and attempted to implement a series of reforms that would remodel Austrian society into what he believed to be an ideal state.

Joseph II's commitment to modernizing reforms, however, engendered significant opposition. For example, his plan for religious tolerance, which extended to Protestants and Orthodox Christians, was met with anger by Catholic clergy. Additionally, the nobility despised the Serfdom Patent of 1781, which gave serfs civil liberties. By the time of his death, Joseph II had reversed most of his reforms out of fear of a revolt, showing how his security of power took priority over his supposedly enlightened beliefs.

Despite the opposition and eventual failure to fully implement his programs, Joseph II's attempts at reform had a significant impact. He inspired a complete reform of the legal system, abolished brutal punishments and the death penalty in most instances, and imposed the principle of complete equality of treatment for all offenders. He ended censorship of the press and theatre, and continued his mother’s reforms in education and medicine.

In summary, while Joseph II's attempts at enlightened despotism in Austria were ultimately unsuccessful, they represented a significant shift in governance and had a lasting impact on Austrian society.

The role of Emperor Joseph II

Enlightened absolutism, also called enlightened despotism, refers to the conduct and policies of European absolute monarchs during the 18th and early 19th centuries who were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment. These rulers distinguished themselves from ordinary despots by claiming to rule for the well-being of their subjects.

Emperor Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of Austria from 1780 to 1790, was a proponent of enlightened despotism. He was the son of Maria Theresa, the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. Joseph II was at ease with Enlightenment ideas and attempted to implement a series of reforms that would remodel Austrian society into what he believed to be an ideal state.

Joseph II's commitment to modernising reforms, however, engendered significant opposition, and he ultimately failed to fully implement his programs. Many of his measures were experienced as tyranny by those whose welfare they were intended to improve. He often went about his reforms too hastily and without considering the mood of the people. By the time of his death, he had reversed most of his reforms out of fear of revolt, showing how his security of power took priority over his supposedly enlightened beliefs.

Despite this, Joseph II's reign did see some notable accomplishments and improvements. He inspired a complete reform of the legal system, ending brutal punishments and the death penalty in most instances, and imposing the principle of complete equality of treatment for all offenders. He ended censorship of the press and theatre, and continued his mother's reforms in education and medicine. He also attempted to abolish serfdom, although he ultimately failed to do so due to resistance from the landholders. In 1781, he passed the Tolerance Patent, followed by further decrees concerning freedom of religion, which improved the position of Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and Jews. He opened access to universities and trades for non-Catholics, and was seen as a great liberator, particularly by the Jews, ushering in Jewish emancipation and the rise of the Jewish middle class.

Joseph II also introduced wide-ranging reforms affecting the rural population, who made up the majority of the populace. He abolished censorship, leading to a flowering in literary production, and systematically extended welfare institutions, including the founding of the General Hospital in Vienna in 1784, one of the most modern institutions of its kind in Europe at the time. Numerous economic reforms fostered a boom in commerce and trade, leading to the establishment of a robust and self-confident middle class.

The influence of Voltaire

Enlightened absolutism, also called enlightened despotism, was influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment. It refers to the conduct and policies of European absolute monarchs during the 18th and early 19th centuries who were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment, using them to enhance their power.

The French Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire was a prominent figure of this movement. Voltaire, a pen name for Francois-Marie Arouet, was an author and philosopher of the Enlightenment period. He inspired those interested in free inquiry and secularism, championing freedom of thought and rejecting religious superstition, intolerance, and tyranny. Voltaire's writings resulted in imprisonment and exile, but they also won him fame.

Voltaire's influence extended to rulers embracing enlightened absolutism. He believed that an enlightened monarchy was the only real way for society to advance. When he fell out of favour in France, he accepted an invitation from Frederick the Great of Prussia to live at his palace. Frederick ruled Prussia from 1740 to 1786 and was an enthusiast of French ideas. Voltaire's influence on Frederick is evident in the latter's essay defending enlightened despotism. Frederick explained his governing philosophy as:

> "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."

Voltaire also condoned enlightened despotism, believing that a strong but just prince would prevent factions from destroying each other. However, his wit clashed with Frederick's autocratic temper, and he left Prussia after two years.

Voltaire's influence also extended to Russia. Catherine II of Russia, the country's longest-ruling female leader, was an admirer of Voltaire's work. She continued to modernise Russia along Western European lines, with a particular focus on the arts, sciences, and the modernisation of Russian education. She established the Smolny Institute for Noble Girls to educate females, initially from the noble elite but eventually admitting girls from the petit-bourgeoisie as well.

The impact on the Church

Enlightened absolutism, also known as enlightened despotism, refers to the conduct and policies of absolute monarchs during the 18th and early 19th centuries who were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment. These rulers sought to improve the lives of their subjects while maintaining absolute power. The impact of this form of governance on the Church varied depending on the specific ruler and region, but there were some common trends across Europe, including Austria. Here is an examination of the impact of enlightened despotism on the Church, with a focus on the attempts made in Austria under the rule of Joseph II.

During the Age of Enlightenment, the authority of the Church was questioned, and this had a direct impact on the relationship between the Church and the state under enlightened despotism. In Austria, Joseph II, who ruled from 1780 to 1790, attempted to implement a series of reforms that would remodel Austrian society into what he believed to be an ideal state. Joseph II's reforms included a significant attempt to modernize the highly traditional Catholic Church. He struck at papal power, trying to make the Catholic Church in his empire independent of Rome and a tool of the state. He also issued a charter of religious tolerance for the Jews of Galicia, promoting Germanization and the wearing of non-Jewish clothing.

One of the most contentious issues during Joseph II's rule was ecclesiastical reform, particularly the dissolution of monasteries. He closed down all ecclesiastical institutions that were dedicated solely to the contemplative life and did not contribute to education, tending the sick, or pastoral care. This affected around a third of all religious foundations at the time, and their assets were used to create a Religious Fund to endow new parishes. Joseph II's reforms also led to the founding of hundreds of new parishes and the alteration of diocesan boundaries to accommodate these changes. All papal ordinances had to be approved by state committees, and the training of priests was permitted only in state-run seminaries, making the secular priests an extension of state authority.

The impact of Joseph II's ecclesiastical reforms was mixed. On the one hand, they contributed to the creation of a uniform network of parishes and the improvement of education and pastoral care. On the other hand, they met with considerable resistance, particularly from the simple people who were still deeply rooted in traditional social and religious practices. Even some clergy members resisted the reforms, and when Pope Pius VI travelled to Vienna in 1782 to persuade the emperor to reconsider, Joseph II refused. By the time of his death in 1790, facing resistance and the threat of revolt, Joseph II had revoked many of his reforms, including those related to the Church.

In conclusion, enlightened despotism in Austria under Joseph II had a significant impact on the Church. While he attempted to modernize the Catholic Church and promote religious tolerance, his reforms ultimately faced strong opposition and were largely revoked. The legacy of Joseph II's ecclesiastical reforms highlights the complex relationship between the Church and the state during the Age of Enlightenment, as well as the challenges of implementing enlightened despotism in a society rooted in traditional religious practices.

The legacy of enlightened despotism

On the other hand, despite their progressive ideas, enlightened despots maintained autocratic power and often suppressed dissent to preserve their authority. They held that royal power emanated from a social contract, and as such, the monarch's responsibility for their subjects precluded their political participation. This led to a contradiction at the core of enlightened despotism, as despots could not convincingly champion the equality of all peoples while holding absolute power. Additionally, the implementation of enlightened despotism varied among rulers, with some being more successful than others in integrating Enlightenment ideas into their rule. For example, while Frederick the Great of Prussia is often regarded as a model for other contemporary rulers to follow, he was criticised by Voltaire for not going far enough to protect human rights and for his foreign policy decisions.

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