The Complex History Of Bosnia And Herzegovina's Austrian-Hungarian Rule

Bosnia and Herzegovina was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1878 to 1918. The region fell under Austro-Hungarian rule in 1878, following the Russo-Turkish War, when the Congress of Berlin approved the occupation of the Bosnia Vilayet, which was, at least nominally, still part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1908, Austria-Hungary formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, establishing the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina under the joint control of Austria and Hungary.

Bosnia and Herzegovina fell under Austro-Hungarian rule in 1878

> "The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. The government of Austria-Hungary, not desiring to undertake the administration of the Sanjak of Novi-Pazar, which extends between Serbia and Montenegro in a south-easterly direction to the other side of Mitrovitza, the Ottoman administration will continue to exercise its functions there. Nevertheless, in order to assure the maintenance of the new political state of affairs, as well as freedom and security of communications, Austria-Hungary reserves the right of keeping garrisons and having military and commercial roads in the whole of this part of the ancient vilayet of Bosnia."

The Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was met with resistance from local fighters, supported by the Ottoman Empire. The Austro-Hungarian army entered the country in two large movements: one from the north into Bosnia and another from the south into Herzegovina. The occupation lasted from 29 July to 20 October 1878 and was marked by a series of battles, including significant confrontations near Čitluk, Stolac, Livno and Klobuk. Despite setbacks at Maglaj and Tuzla, Sarajevo was occupied in October 1878, following a day of fierce street-to-street fighting.

The Austro-Hungarian takeover was opposed primarily by the Orthodox Serbs (43% of the population) and the Bosnian Muslims (39%), who stood to lose their privileged status under the previous Islamic government. The Catholic Croats (18%) barely opposed the occupation at all. The Austro-Hungarian government characterised the resistors as "uncivilised" and "treacherous".

The Austro-Hungarian Army mobilised a substantial force for the invasion, including 82,113 troops, 13,313 horses and 112 cannons. The original occupying force, the 13th Corps under General Josip Filipović, crossed the river Sava near Brod, Kostajnica and Gradiška. A second occupying force, the 18th Division of 9,000 men under General Stjepan Jovanović, advanced out of Austrian Dalmatia along the Neretva. The Austro-Hungarian troops occasionally faced ferocious opposition from elements of both the Muslim and Orthodox populations, and the campaign was significantly more violent than expected, leading to recriminations between commanders and political leaders.

Following the occupation, the Austro-Hungarian authorities embarked on a series of social and administrative reforms, intending to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model colony". Habsburg rule codified laws, introduced new political practices, and provided for modernisation, with the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav nationalism.

The provinces were annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908

The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in 1908 was the culmination of a decades-long occupation of the region. The provinces, formerly under Ottoman rule, had been occupied by Austro-Hungarian forces since 1878, when the Congress of Berlin granted the Austro-Hungarian Empire the authority to occupy and administer them indefinitely. This occupation was met with fierce resistance from local populations, particularly Orthodox Serbs and Bosnian Muslims, who stood to lose their privileged status under the previous Islamic government. Despite this opposition, Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to establish control and implement social and administrative reforms with the aim of creating a "model colony".

The annexation itself was sparked by a series of political calculations by Baron Aloys von Aerenthal, the foreign minister of Austria-Hungary. Seeing the Ottoman Empire in a state of weakness due to a rebellion by the Committee of Union and Progress (the "Young Turks"), as well as Russia's preoccupation with the aftermath of its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and internal revolution, Aerenthal saw an opportunity to assert his empire's dominance in the Balkans. Additionally, Aerenthal wanted to solidify Austria-Hungary's position against Serbia, which had expansionist ambitions in the region and had become a close ally of Russia.

The annexation was announced on October 6, 1908, by Emperor Franz Joseph, who declared his determination to grant the provinces an autonomous and constitutional regime under his authority. This unilateral action sparked outrage and protests from Serbia, Montenegro, and all the Great Powers of Europe, who saw it as a violation of the Treaty of Berlin. The crisis damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, particularly Serbia, Italy, and Russia, and laid the groundwork for World War I. Despite the backlash, Austria-Hungary was able to maintain control of Bosnia and Herzegovina until the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918.

The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was a significant event in European history, upsetting the fragile balance of power in the Balkans and contributing to the tensions that eventually led to the outbreak of World War I. The provinces became a source of tension and conflict between competing empires and nationalist ambitions, ultimately shaping the course of history in the region and beyond.

The annexation caused the Bosnian Crisis

The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in 1908 caused the Bosnian Crisis, also known as the Annexation Crisis or the First Balkan Crisis. This annexation was the unilateral action of Austria-Hungary, timed alongside Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire. This sparked outrage and protest from all the Great Powers, as well as Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbours, Serbia and Montenegro.

The annexation was a complex diplomatic manoeuvre by the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, Alois Aehrenthal, who sought to solidify his empire's position in the Balkans. Aehrenthal met with his Russian counterpart, Alexander Izvolsky, and the two agreed that Russia would not oppose the annexation if Austria-Hungary agreed not to oppose the opening of the Bosporus and Dardanelles Straits to Russian warships. However, Izvolsky was unprepared for the swiftness of the annexation and was unable to control the strong opposition to it in Russia. Serbia, with close geographical and ethnic links to Bosnia and Herzegovina, was outraged and demanded that Austria cede a portion of the annexed territory. Izvolsky was forced to support these claims under pressure from anti-Austrian sentiment in Russia.

Austria-Hungary, with the backing of its ally Germany, threatened to invade Serbia if it persisted with its demands. Russia, whose ally France was unable to offer strong support, could not risk war with both Austria-Hungary and Germany. In March 1909, Izvolsky notified Germany that Russia accepted the annexation. Although the crisis was resolved without war, the resulting damage to relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, as well as Russia's resentment at being deceived, contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

The Austro-Hungarian occupation faced resistance from local fighters

The Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina did indeed face resistance from local fighters. The campaign to establish this rule lasted from 29 July 1878 until 20 October of the same year, during which time the Austro-Hungarian Army faced off against local resistance fighters supported by the Ottoman Empire.

The Austro-Hungarian Army entered the country in two large movements: one from the north into Bosnia and another from the south into Herzegovina. The original occupying force, the 13th Corps under General Josip Filipović, crossed the river Sava and assembled at Banja Luka, advancing down the road on the left side of the Vrbas river. They encountered resistance from local Muslims under the dervish Hadži Loja, who were supported by evacuating Ottoman troops. On 3 August, a troop of hussars was ambushed near Maglaj on the Bosna river, prompting Filipović to institute martial law.

A second occupying force, the 18th Division of 9,000 men under General Stjepan Jovanović, advanced out of Austrian Dalmatia along the Neretva. On 5 August, the division captured Mostar, the chief city of Herzegovina. On 13 August, more than 70 Hungarian officers and soldiers were killed in action in Herzegovina. In response, the Empire mobilised the 3rd, 4th and 5th Corps.

The Austro-Hungarian troops were met with fierce opposition from elements of both the Muslim and Orthodox populations, and significant battles occurred near Čitluk, Stolac, Livno and Klobuk. Despite setbacks at Maglaj and Tuzla, Sarajevo was eventually occupied in October 1878. On 19 August, the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo, was captured only after the deployment of 52 guns and violent street fighting. The occupiers lost 57 soldiers, with 314 wounded, out of the 13,000 soldiers employed in the operation. They estimated the insurgent fatalities at 300 but did not estimate civilian casualties.

In the days following the fall of Sarajevo, the main insurgents retreated into the mountainous country beyond the city and maintained their resistance for several weeks. Hadži Loja surrendered to the Hungarian Infantry Regiment No. 37 Erzherzog Joseph on 3 October in the ravine by Rakitnica. He was sentenced to death, but his sentence was later commuted to five years' imprisonment. The castle of Velika Kladuša surrendered on 20 October.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was forced to use five corps with a collective strength of 153,300 soldiers and 112 guns to subdue Bosnia and Herzegovina. The General Staff estimated there were 79,000 armed insurgents assisted by 13,800 regular Ottoman soldiers with about 77 guns. Total Austro-Hungarian losses were almost 5,200: 946 dead, 272 missing, and 3,980 wounded. The unexpected violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders.

The region was governed jointly by Austria and Hungary

Bosnia and Herzegovina fell under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1878, following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. The region was governed jointly by Austria and Hungary, with the former taking the lead. The Treaty of Berlin, organised by the Congress of Berlin, granted the Austro-Hungarian Empire the authority to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina, while the Ottoman Empire retained formal sovereignty. This joint governance was referred to as a "condominium".

The Austro-Hungarian Army entered Bosnia and Herzegovina in two large movements: one from the north into Bosnia and another from the south into Herzegovina. The occupation lasted from July 29 to October 20, 1878, and was met with fierce resistance from local fighters, particularly the Orthodox Serbs and Bosnian Muslims, who had much to lose under the new Christian government. Despite setbacks, the Austro-Hungarian troops prevailed, and Sarajevo was occupied in October 1878.

The Austro-Hungarian administration aimed to establish Bosnia and Herzegovina as a model colony and a stable political model to counter rising South Slav nationalism. They introduced social and administrative reforms, codified laws, and modernised the region. The region's division by the Ottoman Empire was largely retained, with only the names of divisional units being changed. The Austro-Hungarian authorities also endorsed a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation, promoting the idea of "Bosniakhood" to foster a sense of belonging to a powerful nation.

In 1908, the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, provoking the Bosnian Crisis. This annexation upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans and enraged Serbia and pan-Slavic nationalists. It marked a shift from temporary occupation to permanent incorporation into the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with the region now governed as a unique administrative territory under the joint leadership of Austria and Hungary.

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