Austria's Independence: 1830S Separation From Germany

In the 1830s, Austria was a separate country from Germany. In fact, Austria was a separate country from Germany for most of their histories, only being united under the Holy Roman Empire from 962 to 1806. After the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, Austria became the Austrian Empire and was also part of the German Confederation until the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. In 1867, Austria formed a dual monarchy with Hungary, creating the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After World War I, Austria briefly renamed itself the Republic of German-Austria in a bid for union with Germany, but this was forbidden by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.

The Austrian-Nazi coup attempt in 1934

In the 1930s, Nazi Germany pursued an aggressive foreign policy, which culminated in World War II. The Austrian-Nazi coup attempt in 1934 was part of this.

On 25 July 1934, Austrian Nazis attempted to overthrow the Austrian government. Members of the Vienna SS took control of the Austrian chancellery, where the cabinet had been meeting. In the process, the conspirators shot and killed Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. Other plotters seized control of the state radio station in Vienna and prematurely announced the coup. Outside Vienna, other Austrian Nazis also revolted against the government.

However, the majority of Austrians remained loyal to the government. The Austrian military and police forces quickly defeated the conspirators. The coup attempt failed.

Was Austria separate from Germany in the 1830s?

In the 1830s, Austria was part of the Austrian Empire, which was ruled by the House of Habsburg. The Austrian Empire was a multinational realm and included many non-German-speaking areas. The Empire was dissolved in 1867, when the Austro-Hungarian Empire was established.

The Berchtesgaden Agreement in 1938

The Berchtesgaden Agreement was a meeting between British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and German Chancellor Adolf Hitler at Hitler's private mountain retreat in Berchtesgaden, Germany, in an attempt to resolve the crisis over the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia. The Sudetenland was a part of Czechoslovakia that was inhabited by about three million people of German origin. Hitler wanted to unite all Germans into one nation and had his eyes on the Sudetenland. Sudeten Germans began protests and provoked violence from the Czech police. Hitler claimed that 300 Sudeten Germans had been killed, which was not true, but he used it as an excuse to place German troops along the Czech border.

On September 13, 1938, Chamberlain flew to Hitler's residence in Berchtesgaden for the meeting. Hitler insisted that the Sudeten Germans must be allowed to exercise the right of national self-determination and be able to join Sudetenland with Germany. Hitler also expressed concern to Chamberlain about what he perceived as British "threats." Chamberlain responded that he had not issued any threats and was frustrated, asking Hitler, "Why did I come over here to waste my time?" Hitler responded that if Chamberlain was willing to accept the self-determination of the Sudeten Germans, he would be willing to discuss the matter. Hitler went on to say that Czechoslovakia was a fraudulent state that was in violation of international law's emphasis on national self-determination. He accused the Czechoslovak government of seeking to gradually exterminate the Sudeten Germans and persecuting Hungarians, Poles, and Slovaks. He also claimed that Czechoslovakia was a client regime of France and that the French Minister of Aviation Pierre Cot had said, "We need this state as a base from which to drop bombs with greater ease to destroy Germany's economy and its industry."

The meeting adjourned with no agreement, and Chamberlain flew back to Britain to meet with his cabinet to discuss the issue. Hitler ordered the establishment of Sudetendeutsches Freikorps, a paramilitary organization that took over the structure of Ordnersgruppe, an organization of ethnic Germans in Czechoslovakia that had been dissolved by the Czechoslovak authorities. Hitler also gave a speech at a Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg on the Sudeten crisis, condemning the actions of the Czechoslovak government.

On September 20, Chamberlain offered to go to Hitler's residence again for another meeting to find a solution to avert a war. Hitler agreed, and the two met at Bad Godesberg on September 22. Hitler demanded that Czechoslovakia cede the Sudetenland to Germany no later than September 28, with plebiscites to be held in unspecified areas under the supervision of German and Czechoslovak forces. Hitler also said that Czechoslovakia must begin the evacuation of ethnic Czechs from the German majority territories by September 26. Chamberlain agreed to submit Hitler's demands to the Czechoslovak government, which initially rejected them. However, Czechoslovakia eventually capitulated and agreed to abide by the agreement on September 30.

On September 29, Chamberlain, Hitler, French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier, and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini met in Munich and signed the Munich Agreement. The agreement stipulated that Germany would complete the occupation of the Sudetenland by October 10 and that an international commission would decide the future of other disputed areas. Czechoslovakia was informed by Britain and France that it could either resist Germany alone or submit to the prescribed annexations. Czechoslovakia chose to submit, and the Sudetenland was annexed by Germany on October 1.

The Munich Agreement was widely celebrated at the time as a way to prevent a major war on the continent. Hitler announced that it was his last territorial claim in Northern Europe, and Chamberlain declared that it was "peace for our time." However, the agreement is now widely regarded as a failed act of appeasement, and the term has become "a byword for the futility of appeasing expansionist totalitarian states."

The plebiscite on Austrian independence

In early 1938, Austrian Nazis conspired to seize the Austrian government by force and unite their nation with Nazi Germany. Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg, learning of the conspiracy, met with Nazi leader Adolf Hitler in the hopes of reasserting his country's independence but was instead bullied into naming several top Austrian Nazis to his cabinet. On 9 March 1938, Schuschnigg called a national vote to resolve the question of Anschluss once and for all. Before the plebiscite could take place, however, Schuschnigg gave in to pressure from Hitler and resigned on 11 March. In his resignation address, under coercion from the Nazis, he pleaded with Austrian forces not to resist a German "advance" into the country.

The Anschluss

The idea of an Anschluss was supported by many Austrian citizens of the political left and centre, who believed that Austria, stripped of its imperial land, was not economically viable. The Nazis also supported the idea of an Anschluss, as it was an integral part of the Nazi "Heim ins Reich" concept, which sought to incorporate as many Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans outside Germany) as possible into a "Greater Germany".

In early 1938, Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg announced a referendum on the issue of a union with Germany, to be held on the 13th of March. However, under pressure from Hitler, Schuschnigg resigned on the 11th of March, and a day before the planned referendum, the German Army crossed the border into Austria. A plebiscite was held on the 10th of April, with the ballot not being secret, and threats and coercion were employed to manipulate the vote, resulting in 99.7% approval for the Anschluss. While the population's true opinions are unknown, it has been estimated that about 70% of Austrians would have voted to preserve Austrian independence.

The plebiscite on unification with Germany

The Austrian government had planned a referendum to assert its sovereignty for 13 March 1938, but Germany invaded Austria the day before to prevent the vote from taking place. The Anschluss was supported by the Social Democratic Party of Austria, whose leader Karl Renner endorsed Adolf Hitler on 3 April, and Cardinal Theodor Innitzer, the highest representative of the Catholic Church in Austria. This meant that about two-thirds of Austrians could be counted on to vote for the Anschluss.

However, the plebiscite was subject to large-scale Nazi propaganda, and the voting rights of around 360,000 people (8% of the eligible voting population) were abrogated. These were mainly political enemies such as former members of left-wing parties and Austrian citizens of Jewish or Romani origin. The ballot featured a large circle for 'yes' votes and a small one for 'no' votes, and threats and coercion were employed to manipulate the vote. The result was described as "the outcome of opportunism, ideological conviction, massive pressure, occasional vote rigging, and a propaganda machine that Austria's political culture had never before experienced".

The plebiscite was held a month after the annexation, and the official published results showed 99.73% of voters in favour.

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