Austria And Poland: Historical Ties And Complexities

Austria and Poland have a long historical relationship that dates back several centuries. In the 18th century, the two countries' relations were strained when Austria participated in the Partitions of Poland with Prussia and Russia, which led to the progressive reduction of Poland's size and, eventually, the elimination of the Polish Crown. During the First Partition of 1772, Austria acquired Polish lands, including the Duchy of Zator, the Duchy of Oświęcim, and part of Lesser Poland. In the Third Partition of 1795, Austria annexed Western Galicia and Southern Masovia. These acquisitions constituted the Austrian Partition, which encompassed over 2.65 million people living on 128,900 km2 of land. After World War I, Poland regained its independence from Austria, and both countries re-established relations.

The Austrian Partition of Poland

The Austrian Partition (Polish: zabór austriacki) refers to the acquisition of territories from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by the Habsburg monarchy during the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century. The partitions were conducted jointly by the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and Habsburg Austria, resulting in the complete elimination of the Polish Crown.

Austria acquired Polish lands during the First Partition of 1772 and the Third Partition of Poland in 1795. In the first partition, Austria received the largest share of the formerly Polish population, amounting to over 2.65 million people, and the second-largest land share of 83,000 square kilometres. The annexed territories included the Polish Duchy of Zator and Duchy of Oświęcim, as well as part of Lesser Poland with the counties of Kraków, Sandomierz, and Galicia, excluding the city of Kraków.

During the Third Partition, Austria gained a smaller share, with 47,000 square kilometres of land and 1.2 million people. The annexed lands included Western Galicia and Southern Masovia. Overall, Austria ended up with about 18% of the former Commonwealth territory and about 32% of its population.

The Austrian Partition witnessed several significant events, including the formation of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw in 1807, followed by the 1809 Austro-Polish War, which resulted in a temporary Austrian defeat and the recapture of Kraków and Lwów by the Duchy. However, with the fall of Napoleon, the Duchy was abolished at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, allowing Austria to regain control. The Congress also established the Free City of Kraków, a protectorate of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, which lasted until it was abolished by Austria after crushing the Kraków Uprising in 1846.

In the 19th century, the Austrian government generally showed little accommodation towards their Polish subjects, but by the early 20th century, the Austrian Partition had gained the most local autonomy among the three partitions. Polish was recognised as the official regional language, Polish organisations had some freedom, and Polish political parties could participate in Austro-Hungarian politics.

Austrian-Polish relations

At the peak of their power, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austria's Habsburg monarchy enjoyed a strong and cordial relationship. This was demonstrated by Polish hussars aiding the Austrians in the Battle of Vienna against the Turks, and through various internal and political exchanges between the two states. However, this relationship became strained when Austria participated in the Partitions of Poland with Prussia and Russia in the late 18th century. This period saw the progressive reduction of Poland's territory and, eventually, the elimination of the Polish state. Austria acquired Polish lands during the First Partition of 1772 and the Third Partition of 1795, resulting in the second-largest share of the Commonwealth's population and land.

The Partitions of Poland led to several Polish uprisings against Austrian rule, the largest of which were the Austro-Polish War of 1809 and the Kraków uprising of 1846. Despite being one of the partitioning nations, Austria was relatively more tolerant towards the Poles compared to Prussia and Russia. In 1867, Poles in the Austrian Partition were granted wide autonomy, and Polish culture flourished.

In the 20th century, Austria and Poland re-established relations after World War I, but this was interrupted by Nazi Germany's annexation of Austria and subsequent invasion of Poland with Soviet aid. Following World War II, relations between Austria and the Polish People's Republic were strained due to their differing political alignments during the Cold War. Austria was part of the Western Bloc, closely tied to the West and the United States, while Poland was a communist satellite of the Soviet Union.

However, after the collapse of the Eastern Bloc in 1989, relations between Austria and Poland improved significantly. Austria supported Poland's integration into the Western world, including its accession to NATO and the European Union. Today, both countries continue to cooperate economically and diplomatically, enjoying strong bilateral relations as members of various international organizations.

The Austrian-Polish War of 1809

Austria and Poland have a long historical relationship that dates back several centuries. The Austrian-Polish War of 1809, also known as the Polish-Austrian War, was a conflict between the two nations that occurred during a complex period in their shared history.

The war was part of the War of the Fifth Coalition, a coalition formed by the Austrian Empire and the United Kingdom against Napoleon's French Empire and its allied states. Inspired by the Spanish success against Napoleon, Austria aimed to liberate neighbouring countries from Napoleon's rule. In April 1809, Austrian troops invaded Bavaria, proclaiming a War of German Liberation. However, the Bavarians, who had benefited from Napoleon's earlier defeat of Austria, stood by him once again.

On April 14, 1809, an Austrian corps under Archduke Ferdinand Karl Joseph of Austria-Este invaded the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw, initiating the Austro-Polish conflict. The Polish forces, led by Prince Józef Poniatowski, put up a valiant defence. The Battle of Raszyn on April 19, 1809, was a pivotal moment in the war. Despite being outnumbered, Poniatowski's troops managed to hold their ground, and the battle ended without a decisive victory for either side. However, the Austrians captured the Polish capital of Warsaw, which was seen as a significant strategic gain.

In the following weeks, the Polish forces regrouped and launched counteroffensives. They successfully defended Greater Poland and seized Lwów. Poniatowski's strategic manoeuvres allowed him to capture Kraków and other key cities. The Polish troops demonstrated their military prowess and resilience in a series of battles, forcing the Austrians to retreat and abandon their siege of Warsaw.

The Russian Empire's entry into the war in June 1809 further complicated the situation. The Russians, honouring a stipulation in the Treaty of Tilsit, joined forces with the Poles against Austria. However, their intentions were not entirely altruistic, as they aimed to prevent the Poles from gaining too much strength and intended to claim some Austrian-held territories for themselves.

The Austro-Polish War of 1809 ultimately concluded with the Treaty of Schönbrunn in October 1809, signed between Austria and France. As a result, Austria lost approximately 50,000 square kilometres of land and over 1.9 million people. The Duchy of Warsaw annexed the lands of Zamość and Kraków, along with 50% of the income from the Wieliczka salt mines. The war had far-reaching consequences, shaping the geopolitical landscape of the region and impacting the lives of those living under the respective empires.

The Kraków Uprising of 1846

The uprising began on the night of February 20, 1846, and was led by insurgents such as Jan Tyssowski and Edward Dembowski. It was primarily organised and supported by members of the Polish nobility and middle class, who sought to restore Polish independence after the 1795 partitions of Poland ended its sovereignty. The insurgents also advocated for various political and social reforms, including the emancipation of peasants and an end to serfdom. The uprising was intended to take place in multiple locations, but poor coordination and arrests by authorities disrupted these plans, limiting the uprising mostly to the Free City of Krakow.

The insurgents briefly took control of Kraków, forcing the small Austrian force in the city under General Ludwig Collin to retreat. A provisional government was quickly formed on February 22 and issued a "Manifesto for the Polish Nation," proclaiming universal suffrage and the end of serfdom, inspired by the French Revolution. The uprising, however, was short-lived and lasted only about nine days. The rebels, despite having up to 6,000 volunteers, were poorly trained and armed. They suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of Gdów on February 26 and were quickly dispersed by Austrian forces led by Ludwig von Benedek.

The uprising was soon crushed by the Austrian army, with assistance from local peasants who revolted against the insurgents in what became known as the Galician slaughter. The Austrian authorities exploited the peasants' dissatisfaction with the landowners, promising to end serfdom and even offering stipends for their participation in the militia against the Polish noble insurgents. The uprising resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1,000-2,000 Polish nobility who supported the rebellion.

The aftermath of the Kraków Uprising saw the violation of the 1815 Treaty of Vienna as Austria and Russia signed a treaty to end Kraków's status as the Free City. Kraków and its surrounding areas were subsequently annexed to the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a province of the Austrian Empire. This annexation caused a brief scandal in European politics, as it relegated Kraków to the role of a provincial capital within the Empire. Despite its failure, the uprising was viewed by some scholars, including Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, as a democratic movement advocating for land reform and social justice.

The Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw

The Duchy of Warsaw was created by the Treaties of Tilsit (July 7 and 9, 1807) after the Poles had helped Napoleon defeat Prussia. The duchy consisted mainly of the central Polish provinces that had been absorbed by Prussia in 1793 and 1795. However, several areas were excluded, such as Danzig (Gdańsk), which became a free city, and the district of Białystok, which was ceded to Russia. The new state was also given the region along the Noteć River and the Land of Chełmno.

The Duchy of Warsaw was ruled by King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony, who became the duke of Warsaw and remained a legitimate candidate for the Polish throne. Napoleon dictated the duchy's constitution, which was modelled on the French system and established a powerful executive branch headed by Frederick Augustus I. The Napoleonic Code became the law of the land, and serfdom was partially abolished, granting personal freedom to serfs without providing economic liberties or privileges. The constitution also guaranteed equality before the law and religious tolerance, with Roman Catholicism as the state religion.

The Duchy of Warsaw served as a significant military base and source of troops for Napoleon's campaigns. Its army, under the command of Prince Joseph Poniatowski, was heavily militarised due to its borders with Prussia, the Austrian Empire, and Russia. The duchy's army was considerable in size compared to its population, totalling almost 120,000 troops out of a population of just 4.3 million. However, the heavy drain on resources by forced military recruitment and a drop in exports of grain caused significant economic problems.

In 1809, the Duchy of Warsaw was involved in a short war with Austria. Although the Varsovians won the Battle of Raszyn, Austrian troops occupied Warsaw. The Varsovian and French forces then outflanked the Austrians and captured Kraków, Lwów, and some areas annexed by Austria in the Partitions of Poland. The Treaty of Schönbrunn, which ended the campaign, allowed for a significant expansion of the duchy's territory southwards, regaining once-Polish and Lithuanian lands.

Napoleon's campaign against Russia in 1812 was proclaimed as his "second Polish war," and the Poles expected the duchy to be upgraded to the status of a kingdom. The Duchy of Warsaw put forth a substantial corps of nearly 98,000 men for this campaign. However, Napoleon's defeat in Russia sealed the fate of the duchy. In 1813, the Russians occupied Warsaw and assumed control. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 decided that the Duchy of Warsaw would be divided into three parts: the Grand Duchy of Poznań, which went to Prussia; the free Republic of Cracow, under the protection of Russia, Prussia, and Austria; and the Congress Kingdom of Poland, joined to Russia through a personal union with the Russian emperor as its king.

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