Austria Vs Russia: A Historical Conflict Revisited

The relationship between Austria and Russia has been complex and multifaceted, with both cooperation and conflict characterising their interactions over the centuries. While the two nations have a long history of diplomatic relations, their alliance has not always been amicable, and they have found themselves on opposing sides in several significant conflicts. One of the earliest instances of discord between the two nations occurred during the Crimean War, when Austria maintained a policy of hostile neutrality towards Russia, supporting the Anglo-French coalition. This stance strained relations and set a precedent for future conflicts, including World War I, during which Austria and Russia fought against each other on the bloody Eastern Front.

The Crimean War

The war began when Russian troops occupied the Danubian Principalities (now part of Romania) in July 1853. In response, the British fleet was ordered to Constantinople in September, and on October 4, the Ottomans declared war on Russia. The Russians destroyed a Turkish squadron at Sinope in November, which led the British and French fleets to enter the Black Sea in January 1854 to protect Turkish transports. On March 27 and 28, Britain and France, respectively, declared war on Russia.

In September 1854, the allies landed troops in Russian Crimea and began a year-long siege of the Russian fortress of Sevastopol. Notable battles during the war include the Battle of the Alma, the Battle of Balaklava (commemorated in "The Charge of the Light Brigade" by Alfred, Lord Tennyson), and the Battle of Inkerman. The allies faced significant challenges, including a severe storm that battered the Crimean Peninsula in the winter of 1854-55, destroying supplies and tents and causing many soldiers to succumb to diseases such as cholera.

In January 1855, Sardinia-Piedmont entered the war, sending 10,000 troops to support the allies. The siege of Sevastopol continued, and in early September 1855, the French assaulted and captured the Malakhov, a major strongpoint in the Russian defenses. The Russians then blew up the forts, sank their ships, and evacuated Sevastopol.

With Austria threatening to join the war on the allied side, Russia accepted preliminary peace terms on February 1, 1856. The Congress of Paris worked out the final settlement, resulting in the Treaty of Paris, signed on March 30, 1856. The treaty guaranteed the integrity of Ottoman Turkey and obliged Russia to surrender southern Bessarabia at the mouth of the Danube. The Black Sea was neutralized, and the Danube River was opened to the shipping of all nations.

The Bosnian Crisis

In the years leading up to the crisis, Austria-Hungary had invested significant resources in improving the economic and strategic value of the region. However, in July 1908, the Young Turks revolution in Constantinople raised concerns in Austria-Hungary about the potential for the new Turkish regime to regain control of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This prompted the Austrian foreign minister, Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal, to pursue annexation of the provinces.

To secure Russian agreement and prevent interference, Aehrenthal met with the Russian foreign minister, Aleksandr P. Izvolsky, at Buchlau Castle in Moravia on September 16, 1908. The two ministers agreed that Russia would not oppose the annexation in exchange for Austria-Hungary's support for opening the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits to Russian warships, which had been denied to them since 1841. Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire was also part of this agreement.

On October 5, 1908, Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, sparking protests and opposition from Serbia, Montenegro, and other European powers. Serbia, in particular, was outraged by the annexation due to geographic and ethnic connections with Bosnia and Herzegovina. It demanded that Austria cede a portion of the annexed territory, and Izvolsky was forced to support these claims due to anti-Austrian sentiment in Russia. However, Austria-Hungary, backed by its ally Germany, threatened to invade Serbia if it persisted in its demands.

The crisis threatened to escalate into warfare, but ultimately, Russia backed down. In March 1909, Izvolsky notified Germany that Russia accepted the annexation. While immediate warfare was averted, the crisis had lasting consequences. It severely damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, particularly Serbia, Italy, and Russia. The resentment and enmity generated by the crisis contributed to the outbreak of World War I a few years later.

World War I

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife on 28 June 1914, was the spark that ignited World War I. Austria-Hungary accused Serbia of plotting the assassination and threatened invasion. This led to a series of events that would quickly expand into World War I.

On 28 July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia, which had already decided to support Serbia and defend its interests in the Balkans, rapidly mobilized its forces, resulting in huge losses and contributing to revolutions at home. Germany, an ally of Austria-Hungary, declared war on Russia on 1 August 1914.

The Eastern Front of World War I was a 'war of movement', encompassing the entire frontier between Russia and Romania on one side, and Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, and Germany on the other. The fighting on the Eastern Front was dynamic and often involved flanking and encirclement of entire formations. The Central Powers faced a much larger but disorganized Russian force.

Russia's initial plan at the outbreak of war was defensive, concentrating its armies on its western border with Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, Russia went on the offensive at the start of the war, launching attacks against both Germany and Austria-Hungary that were meant to achieve rapid victory. The invasion of East Prussia was defeated, and the advance into Austria-Hungary stalled. Despite these setbacks, Russia continued its offensive to take pressure off France at Verdun. The Brusilov Offensive in 1916 became the largest Entente victory in the war, inflicting over one million casualties on Austria-Hungary and forcing Germany to redeploy divisions from the Western Front.

The weaknesses of the Russian army were exacerbated by deficiencies in munitions, especially rifles and shells. The Russian army suffered from inadequate supplies, poor planning, and a lack of competent leadership. The Russian Revolution of 1917 further weakened the Russian army, and the Bolsheviks eventually signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers in March 1918, taking Russia out of the war.

Austria-Hungary played a relatively passive diplomatic role during the war and was increasingly dominated and controlled by Germany. The Austro-Hungarian army suffered severe casualties and was ill-equipped to handle the conflict. The incompetence of the Austrian high command and the empire's dire economic conditions further contributed to its demise. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the subsequent declaration of war on Serbia set off a chain of events that ultimately led to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the end of World War I.

Cold War espionage

During the Cold War, Austria was a neutral state near the Iron Curtain, making it a convenient listening post for both sides. Its capital, Vienna, has been described as a "centre for espionage", a "spying capital of the world", and a "nest of spies".

Austria's role in Cold War espionage was largely due to its location in central Europe and its history of neutrality. Its domestic policies and laws only criminalise espionage if it is directed against Austria. This has made it an attractive base for foreign intelligence operations.

Vienna is home to the headquarters of several international organisations, including the United Nations and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). Countries can have up to two additional diplomatic missions to these organisations, providing diplomatic immunity and cover for spies.

Austria's entanglement in Cold War espionage continued beyond the fall of the Iron Curtain. In 2010, Vienna was the site of the biggest spy swap between Russia and the United States since the Cold War. In 2020, a retired member of the Austrian military was sentenced for spying for Russian authorities. In 2024, a former Austrian intelligence officer, Egisto Ott, was arrested on suspicion of providing sensitive information to Russia.

2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

On 24 February 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine in a major escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War, which started in 2014. The invasion, the largest and deadliest conflict in Europe since World War II, has caused hundreds of thousands of military casualties and tens of thousands of Ukrainian civilian casualties.

In the lead-up to the invasion, Russia massed troops near Ukraine's borders and issued demands to the West, including a ban on Ukraine ever joining the NATO military alliance. After repeatedly denying having plans to attack Ukraine, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced a "special military operation" on 24 February 2022, saying that it was to support the Russian-backed breakaway republics of Donetsk and Luhansk, whose paramilitary forces had been fighting Ukraine in the Donbas conflict since 2014. Putin espoused irredentist and imperialist views, challenging Ukraine's legitimacy as a state, baselessly claiming that the Ukrainian government were neo-Nazis committing genocide against the Russian minority in the Donbas, and saying that Russia's goal was to "demilitarise and denazify" Ukraine.

The invasion began within minutes of Putin's speech. Russian air strikes and a ground invasion were launched on a northern front from Belarus towards the capital Kyiv, a southern front from Crimea, and an eastern front from the Donbas and towards Kharkiv. Ukraine enacted martial law, ordered a general mobilisation, and severed diplomatic relations with Russia.

The invasion has been met with widespread international condemnation. The United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution condemning the invasion and demanding a full Russian withdrawal. Many countries imposed sanctions on Russia and its ally Belarus and provided humanitarian and military aid to Ukraine.

The war has resulted in a massive refugee crisis and has had a devastating impact on Ukraine's economy and infrastructure. As of 2024, Russian troops occupy about 20% of Ukraine. From a population of 41 million, about 8 million Ukrainians had been internally displaced and more than 8.2 million had fled the country by April 2023, creating Europe's largest refugee crisis since World War II.

The war has also had significant geopolitical consequences, leading to a further deterioration of Russia's relations with the West and a strengthening of Ukraine's ties with the European Union and NATO. Ukraine has received extensive military and humanitarian aid from Western countries, and several previously neutral countries, such as Sweden and Finland, have abandoned their neutrality and joined NATO due to security concerns stemming from the war.

The war has also highlighted the complex historical and cultural ties between Russia and Austria, which date back to the time of the Habsburg Empire. While Austria has officially condemned the invasion and supported EU sanctions against Russia, it has sought to maintain good economic relations with Russia and has refrained from expelling Russian diplomats or taking other retaliatory measures.

In conclusion, the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has had far-reaching political, economic, and humanitarian consequences and has led to a significant deterioration of Russia's relations with the West. The war is ongoing, and it remains to be seen whether a diplomatic resolution can be achieved or if the conflict will escalate further.

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