Lyla Lindsey
Australia's history as a penal colony is well-known. The country was indeed instrumentalised by Britain as a place to exile convicts, who were put to work as indentured labourers. The majority of convicts were transported for petty crimes, particularly theft, and about one in seven convicts was female. The penal colony system in Australia lasted from 1788 to 1868, with transportation peaking in the 1830s. While it is true that convicts played a significant role in the early development of Australia, it is a myth that the country was made by prisoners. Free settlers also arrived in significant numbers, and the economic potential of the colonies was a central motivation for colonisation.
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What You'll Learn
The founding of Australia by criminals is a foundation myth
The idea that Australia was founded by criminals is a foundation myth. While it is true that many convicts were transported to Australia, they made up only a small proportion of early colonists. The first free settlers arrived in New South Wales in 1793, and convicts remained in the majority until the gold rushes of the 1850s, when there was a great influx of people.
The transportation of convicts to Australia began in 1787 with the arrival of the First Fleet, a fleet of ships containing over 1,000 people, about three-quarters of whom were convicts. Penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s, with 7,000 prisoners arriving in 1833. Most convicts were transported for petty crimes, particularly theft, and approximately one in seven convicts was female. The majority of convicts were from England and Wales, with a large contingent of Irish (24%) and a smaller number of Scots (5%).
Convicts in Australia lived under very strict rules, and any breaking of those regulations could result in punishment such as whippings, the wearing of leg irons, or solitary confinement. Serious crimes could result in sentences to hard-labour prisons such as Port Arthur or Norfolk Island. However, the majority of convicts worked for the government or free settlers, and with good behaviour, they could earn a ticket of leave, conditional pardon, or even an absolute pardon. While under such orders, convicts could earn their own living. The majority of convicts stayed on in Australia after their sentences were served, and some even rose to prominent positions in Australian society.
The idea of sending convicts to Australia was proposed by aristocrats as a solution to Britain's overcrowded prisons. After the American colonies won their independence, Britain could no longer send convicts across the Atlantic, and so they turned to Australia as an alternative destination. This policy was adopted in the late 18th century and continued until 1868 when the last convict ship arrived in Western Australia.
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Penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s
The idea of sending convicts to Australia was proposed by aristocrats to address the problem of overcrowded prisons. In 1770, James Cook charted and claimed possession of the east coast of Australia for Britain. Seeking to pre-empt the French colonial empire from expanding into the region, Britain chose Australia as the site of a penal colony. The Transportation Act of 1717 simplified the process of transporting convicts, and in 1787, the First Fleet of 11 convict ships set sail for Botany Bay, arriving on 20 January 1788 to found Sydney, New South Wales.
Convicts in Australia lived under very strict rules, and any breaking of those regulations could result in harsh punishments such as whippings, the wearing of leg irons, or solitary confinement. However, by the mid-1830s, only six per cent of convicts were locked up, with the vast majority working for the government or free settlers. With good behaviour, convicts could earn a ticket of leave, conditional pardon, or even an absolute pardon, allowing them to earn their own living. Once their sentences were served, the majority of convicts stayed in Australia, and some even rose to prominent positions in Australian society.
Despite the benefits of the system to Australia's economy, protests against the convict system intensified throughout the colonies in the 1830s, leading to a significant drop in transportation in the following decade. In 1865, Britain informed the colony that it would send one convict ship each year from 1865 to 1867, after which transportation would cease. The last convict ship, the Hougoumont, arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868, marking the end of penal transportation to Australia.
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The majority of convicts were retained for public works
The transportation of convicts to Australia was a direct result of the American colonies' refusal to accept any more prisoners. Between 1788 and 1868, more than 162,000 convicts were transported to Australia, with about 7,000 arriving in 1833 alone. Penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s, with the majority of convicts being transported for petty crimes, particularly theft.
Upon arrival in the Colony of New South Wales, a convict was either retained by the Government or assigned to an individual as a form of indentured labour. Government convicts were most often engaged in public works projects, including the construction of roads, bridges, and public buildings. Assigned male convicts were generally employed as field labourers or tradesmen, while women became domestic servants.
The British Government eventually viewed the retention of so many government convicts as extravagant, leading to a reduction in public works and an increase in the number of convicts assigned to private settlers, especially in rural areas. From the early 1840s, a Probation System was employed, where convicts initially spent around two years in public works gangs outside the main settlements.
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Convicts were treated with strict rules and harsh punishments
The Australian colonies were initially proposed as a solution to Britain's overflowing prisons. The Transportation Act of 1717 simplified the process of sending convicts overseas, and until the American Revolutionary War, the American colonies served as Britain's penal colony. After the war, Britain could no longer send convicts to America, and Australia was proposed as the new penal colony.
Convicts transported to Australia lived under very strict rules, and any infractions were met with harsh punishments. Their sentences required them to work from sunrise to sunset, six days a week. This labour was considered their punishment, but it was also viewed as an opportunity for redemption, as Governor Phillip believed that "honest sweat" was the key to reform. Convicts who behaved well could earn a ticket of leave, a conditional pardon, or even an absolute pardon.
The punishments for breaking the rules included whippings, the wearing of leg irons, and solitary confinement. More serious crimes could result in sentences to hard-labour prisons such as Port Arthur or Norfolk Island. Port Arthur, despite its reputation as a harsh prison, was reportedly more humane than other penal settlements, such as Macquarie Harbour. Female convicts also faced harsh punishments, including hard labour, solitary confinement on bread and water, and having their hair cut short, which was considered demeaning.
The methods and intensity of punishments changed over time, influenced by British public opinion on the harshness of convict treatment. Lieutenant-General Sir Richard Bourke, for example, was appalled by the excessive punishments and passed the Magistrates Act, which limited the number of lashes that could be imposed as punishment. By the mid-1830s, only six per cent of convicts were locked up, and the majority worked for the government or free settlers.
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Most convicts stayed in Australia after their sentences were served
The idea of Australia as a nation founded by criminals is a foundation myth that seems to have persisted. While it is true that many convicts were transported to Australia, particularly in the 1830s when transportation peaked, they made up only a small proportion of early colonists. The majority of convicts were transported for petty crimes, particularly theft. However, some were political prisoners who had been convicted of no crime.
Convicts were transported from Britain and Ireland to Australia as punishment for crimes committed. In Australia, they helped build the young colony, working in unpaid hard labour. Convicts lived under very strict rules, and any breaking of those regulations could result in harsh punishments such as whippings, the wearing of leg irons, or solitary confinement. However, with good behaviour, convicts could earn their freedom and even respectability. They could earn a ticket-of-leave, conditional pardon, or even an absolute pardon. Once emancipated, most convicts stayed in Australia and joined the free settlers, with some rising to prominent positions in Australian society. They were allowed to own land, and some were even appointed to key positions in the colonial government under Governor Lachlan Macquarie.
Convicts were assigned to work for the government or free settlers. Many worked directly for the colony government, but many others worked for farmers, sheep grazers, traders, and merchants. Convicts crewed the pilot boat, rebuilt York Street and Stirling Terrace, and turned the track from Albany to Perth into a good road.
Some convicts became successful settlers and businesspeople. For example, Daniel Connor, who was sentenced to seven years' transportation for sheep stealing, became a successful merchant and one of the largest landowners in central Perth by the 1890s. John Tawell served his sentence, became a prosperous chemist, and then returned to England after 15 years. Andrew Thompson, transported in 1791 at age 18, rose to become Chief Constable in the Hawkesbury district, a major cereal farmer, businessman, ship owner, government official, and the largest private employer in the colony.
Transportation to Australia ended in 1868, with the last convict ship, the Hougoumont, arriving in Western Australia in January of that year.
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Frequently asked questions
No, but prisoners were a significant part of Australia's early history. Penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s, with about 24,000 women among the 75,000 convicts transported between 1788 and 1852. The majority of convicts were from England and Wales, with a large contingent of Irish (24%) and a smaller number of Scots (5%).
In the late 18th century, Britain had a growing number of convicted criminals and needed to find a place to send them after the American colonies won their independence and refused to accept any more prisoners.
Convicts in Australia lived and worked as bonded servants. Many worked directly for the colony government, but many others worked for private individuals as a form of indentured labour. They worked as farmers, sheep grazers, traders, merchants, and so on.
