Lyla Lindsey
Australia has a history of slavery and slavery-like practices, including in its colonial past, and it continues to be an issue in the present day. Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison has asserted that there was no slavery in Australia's history, but this is disputed by many, including historians and anti-slavery campaigners. Modern slavery in Australia includes forced labour, human trafficking, forced marriage, and other forms of exploitation. While Australia has strong responses to modern slavery, it is still a significant issue, with an estimated 41,000 individuals living in modern slavery in the country in 2021.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition of Slavery | "The status or condition of a person over whom any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership are exercised" |
| Definition of Modern Slavery | An umbrella term encompassing forced labour, human trafficking, forced marriage, deceptive recruiting, servitude, debt bondage, serfdom, and certain instances of child exploitation |
| History of Slavery in Australia | Various forms of slavery existed from colonisation in 1788 to the present day |
| Historical Examples of Slavery in Australia | Convicts, Aboriginal people, Pacific Islanders, and labourers from India and China were forced into labour |
| Current Status of Slavery in Australia | Illegal |
| International Treaties | Australia is a party to seven core international human rights treaties, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) |
| Government Response | Australia had the strongest government response to modern slavery in the Asia Pacific region and the second strongest response globally |
| Prevalence of Modern Slavery | In 2021, an estimated 41,000 individuals were living in modern slavery in Australia, with a prevalence rate of 1.6 per 1,000 people |
| Common Forms of Modern Slavery | Forced marriage, including child marriage, is the most common form reported to authorities |
| Reporting and Prosecution | Authorities received 294 modern slavery reports in the financial year ending 30 June 2022; CDPP provides information to the government and parliament about prosecutions and vulnerable witness protections |
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What You'll Learn
Slavery in Australia today
Slavery has existed in Australia in various forms since colonisation in 1788. European settlement relied heavily on convicts, sent to Australia as punishment for crimes and forced into labour, often leased to private individuals. Many Aboriginal people were also forced into various forms of slavery and unfree labour from colonisation. Some Indigenous Australians were slaves until the 1970s.
In the 1800s, colonists debated whether the conditions under which Aboriginal people worked breached laws against slavery in the British Empire. In the pastoralist sector, unpaid labour allowed Aboriginal people to stay on their land instead of being forced off or massacred. Anti-slavery campaigners described the conditions of Aboriginal labour in northern Australia as slavery as far back as the 1860s. In 1891, the British journal Anti-Slavery Reporter published a "Slave Map of Modern Australia".
In the 20th century, the British Commonwealth League, the North Australian Workers' Union, anthropologists Ronald and Catherine Berndt, artist Albert Namatjira, and others raised concerns about the slave-like conditions under which many Aboriginal people worked. On cattle stations in the Northern Territory (NT), Aboriginal workers lived in very poor conditions, with no built accommodation and no access to clean water. They received no money, only food, and any clothing provided had to be returned. The Aboriginals Ordinance 1918 (Cth) allowed the non-payment of wages and forced recruitment of labour in the NT. In the 1930s, NT Protector Cecil Cook noted that Australia was in breach of its obligations under the League of Nations Slavery Convention.
In 1943, the value of Aboriginal slave labour in Western Australia was estimated to be £60,000 a year, about A$4 million in today's dollars. Aboriginal people did not see much of this money, as their wages were non-existent or discriminatory. After Federation in 1901, Aboriginal labour was legislated as requiring payment in money, but these wages were often kept in bank accounts that Aboriginal workers could not access, with the money redirected by government bureaucracies.
In 1966, the NT's Wave Hill walk-off, a strike by Gurindji workers led by Vincent Lingiari, brought international attention to the injustice of the system, and eventually led to the government mandating equal pay from December 1968. While this marked a significant step towards addressing Aboriginal slavery in Australia, the fight against slavery in the country is ongoing.
Today, slavery persists in Australia in various forms, including forced labour, human trafficking, and forced marriage. The 2023 Global Slavery Index estimates that on any given day in 2021, there were 41,000 individuals living in modern slavery in Australia, with a prevalence of 1.6 people in modern slavery for every thousand people in the country. Australia is a party to several international conventions and treaties that prohibit slavery, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD).
In recent years, the Australian government has taken steps to address modern slavery, including through the work of the Interim Anti-Slavery Commissioner for NSW and the implementation of the Community Development Program in remote indigenous communities. However, some Australians have criticised the Community Development Program as a form of slavery due to the vulnerability of participants, low levels of agency, and low pay.
While the fight against slavery in Australia continues, it is important to recognise that slavery has existed in the country since colonisation and has evolved over time. Addressing modern slavery requires tackling social norms and discrimination that drive exploitation and ensuring that victims have access to protection and support.
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Historical slavery in Australia
The existence of slavery in Australia is a highly debated topic, with some asserting that it never existed in the country. However, historical records and the testimonies of Aboriginal people and activists suggest otherwise.
Slavery in Australia has existed in various forms since colonisation in 1788. European settlement relied heavily on convicts, who were sent to Australia as punishment for crimes and forced into labour, often being leased to private individuals. This practice continued until the present day. Additionally, many Aboriginal people were forced into slavery and unfree labour from colonisation, with some Indigenous Australians remaining in slavery until the 1970s.
In the 19th century, the wealth made from slavery helped finance the colonisation of Australia, particularly in South Australia and Victoria. Pacific Islanders were also kidnapped or coerced to come to Australia and work in a practice known as blackbirding. Labourers from India and China were also imported and subjected to various degrees of unfree labour. One notable example is the importation of 42 coolies from India by John Mackay in 1837, who leased them out as shepherds. These labourers were subject to assault, slavery, and kidnap, with many absconding due to unmet promises of food, clothing, pay, and shelter.
In Australia's early years, colonists debated whether the working conditions of Aboriginal people constituted slavery. In the pastoralist sector, unpaid labour allowed Aboriginal people to remain on their land instead of being forced off or massacred. Anti-slavery campaigners described the conditions of Aboriginal labour in northern Australia as slavery as early as the 1860s. In 1891, the British journal Anti-Slavery Reporter published a "Slave Map of Modern Australia", highlighting the exploitation of Aboriginal labour.
The impact of slavery on the Australian economy was significant. Aboriginal slave labour allowed big businesses to reap substantial profits and helped maintain the economy during the Great Depression. However, the labour of Aboriginal people and their contributions to the country have often been overlooked or denied. As historian and author Dr Rosalind Kidd notes, "The vast majority of non-Indigenous Australians have no idea of the enormous debt they owe to the Aboriginal men, women, and children whose labour built this country."
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Indigenous Australians and slavery
Slavery has existed in various forms in Australia since colonisation in 1788. European settlement relied heavily on convicts, who were sent to Australia as punishment for crimes and forced into labour, often being leased to private individuals. Many Aboriginal people were also forced into various forms of slavery and unfree labour from colonisation. Some Indigenous Australians were slaves until the 1970s.
Indigenous Australians, along with Malaysians, Timorese, and Micronesians, were kidnapped and sold as slaves for the pearling industry in north-western Australia. This practice, known as blackbirding, also supplied Aboriginal people to work in the sugar cane and cattle industries. Additionally, Indigenous children were often taken from their campsites and used as servants or labourers by colonists. These children were sometimes traded to other colonists and could be taken far away from their lands.
In the 1860s, anti-slavery campaigners described the conditions of Aboriginal labour in northern Australia as slavery. In 1891, the British journal Anti-Slavery Reporter published a "Slave Map of Modern Australia". The Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897 and successive legislation allowed the Protector of Aborigines (usually a policeman or government official) to keep wages in funds that were never paid out. From 1897, no person could employ Indigenous labour in Queensland without the permission of a Protector.
In the early 20th century, as convict labour became less available, colonists turned to importing indentured labourers from India and China. These "coolie" labourers were often subjected to assault, slavery, and kidnap.
Despite the abolition of slavery in the British Empire in 1833, the exploitation of Indigenous Australians continued well into the 20th century. In the 1930s, NT Protector Cecil Cook noted that Australia was in breach of its obligations under the League of Nations Slavery Convention. In the 1950s and 1960s, when wages started to be paid in cash, Indigenous workers still received significantly less than their white counterparts.
In recent years, the Australian government's work program for unemployed welfare recipients has been criticised as akin to slavery due to the vulnerability of participants, low pay, and limited opportunities for workers.
According to the Global Slavery Index, there were approximately 15,000 people living in illegal "conditions of modern slavery" in Australia in 2016, with an estimated 41,000 individuals in 2021. Modern slavery in Australia includes forced marriage, human trafficking, and forced labour, often linked to global supply chains.
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Australia's slavery laws
Australia has been a party to several international conventions and treaties that prohibit slavery and forced labour, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), the International Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery of 1926, and the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery of 1956.
Slavery in Australia has existed in various forms since colonisation in 1788. European settlers relied heavily on convicts, who were often leased to private individuals, as well as Indigenous Australians, Pacific Islanders, and labourers from India and China, who were forced into various forms of unfree labour. Despite legal protections, these workers often faced non-payment of wages and other forms of exploitation.
Slavery practices in Australia continued well into the 20th century, with legislation such as the Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897 and subsequent amendments giving authorities the power to control the wages and employment of Indigenous Australians, effectively reducing them to a state of servitude.
Today, modern slavery in Australia persists in various forms, including forced labour, human trafficking, and forced marriage. The 2023 Global Slavery Index estimates that in 2021, there were 41,000 individuals living in modern slavery in Australia, with a prevalence of 1.6 people per thousand. The Australian government has recognised the issue and is taking steps to address it, including through the implementation of the Criminal Code, which imposes penalties of up to 20 years' imprisonment for servitude and up to 7 years' imprisonment for forced marriage.
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Modern slavery definitions
Modern slavery is a global issue that persists in various forms, including within Australia's borders. It is defined as a relationship based on exploitation, encompassing several types such as forced labour, human trafficking, forced marriage, debt bondage, deceptive recruiting, and the worst forms of child labour. The International Labour Organisation estimates that forced labour in the private economy generates US$150 billion in illegal profits annually, with approximately 25 million people working under such conditions.
In Australia, the Commonwealth Modern Slavery Act 2018, which came into force on 1 January 2019, established a national Modern Slavery Reporting Requirement. This mandate applies to large businesses and entities with annual consolidated revenue of at least A$100 million, requiring them to prepare annual Modern Slavery Statements. These statements assess and address modern slavery risks within their global operations and supply chains.
The Australian Government has taken a leadership role in combating modern slavery, recognising its presence in various sectors, including domestic work, manufacturing, construction, mining, agriculture, and fishing. The country's relatively higher wealth provides it with more resources to address modern slavery, and it has demonstrated the second strongest response globally.
Despite these efforts, modern slavery remains prevalent in Australia. The 2023 Global Slavery Index estimates that in 2021, there were 41,000 individuals living in modern slavery in the country, with a prevalence rate of 1.6 per 1000 people. The most common form of modern slavery reported to authorities is forced marriage, including child marriage, with almost half of the reports in 2022 involving children under 18.
Australia is committed to addressing modern slavery within its borders and in global supply chains. The government's response to the review of the Modern Slavery Act 2018 agreed in full or in part with 25 out of 30 recommendations, demonstrating its dedication to strengthening legislation and holding systems accountable.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, slavery is illegal in Australia. The right to freedom from slavery and forced labour is contained in article 8 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).
Servitude, a form of modern slavery, is punishable by up to 20 years in prison. Other slavery-like offences such as forced labour, deceptive recruiting, and forced marriage are punishable by up to 7 years in prison, with the penalty increasing to 9 years if the victim is a minor.
Modern slavery is an umbrella term encompassing several types of exploitation, including forced labour, human trafficking, and forced marriage.
According to the 2023 Global Slavery Index, there were an estimated 41,000 individuals living in modern slavery in Australia in 2021. The most common form of modern slavery in Australia is forced marriage, including child marriage.
