Bolivia's Drug Trade: A Complex History And Reputation

Bolivia is known for its involvement in the drug trade, particularly the production and trafficking of cocaine. While it is the third-largest grower of coca bushes in the world, the country has also moved into cocaine production, contributing to its reputation as a hub for drug-related activities. Bolivia's coca leaf economy includes formal, informal, and illegal markets, with drug trafficking being a prominent destination for the product. The country's efforts to combat drug-related activities have been met with challenges and criticism, and it is officially classified as a country that fails to cooperate with anti-drug initiatives.

Bolivia is the third-largest coca bush grower in the world

Bolivia is the third-largest grower of coca bushes in the world. In 2010, the area under coca bush cultivation was estimated at 31,000 hectares, concentrated mainly in the Yungas and Chapare areas. Bolivia's coca bush cultivation has decreased since the early and mid-1990s, though it has increased compared to the late 1990s.

The cultivation of coca bushes in Bolivia decreased by around 7% between 2011 and 2012, according to the 2012 national coca monitoring survey presented by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the Bolivian Government. In 2012, the area under cultivation was around 25,300 hectares, down from 27,200 hectares in 2011. This decline confirms the downward trend in coca bush cultivation in Bolivia.

The history of coca bush cultivation in Bolivia is complex and tied to the country's social, economic, and political dynamics. In the 1980s, Bolivia was the second-largest grower of coca in the world, supplying approximately 15% of the US cocaine market. The coca plant, a tea-like shrub, was cultivated mostly by small farmers in the Chapare and Yungas regions. The Bolivian government's efforts to eradicate coca cultivation began in 1983, but these efforts had limited success and faced strong opposition from peasants.

Bolivia's anti-drug policies and law enforcement strategies have been influenced by international pressure, particularly from the United States. US counternarcotics aid has played a significant role in shaping Bolivia's anti-drug laws, institutions, and strategies. However, there have been concerns about human rights abuses and a lack of respect for due process in the enforcement of anti-drug laws in Bolivia.

The dynamics of coca bush cultivation and drug trafficking in Bolivia are complex and involve various actors, including local communities, criminal organizations, and government entities. While coca leaf has traditional and cultural significance in Bolivia, its processing into cocaine paste and the criminal trafficking of cocaine have had negative social, economic, and health impacts on the country.

Coca leaves are processed into coca paste, then into cocaine

First, the coca leaves are harvested. In Bolivia, coca is mostly grown by small farmers in the Chapare and Yungas regions. In the 1980s, coca was Bolivia's most lucrative crop and economic activity. The country was the world's second-largest grower of coca, supplying approximately 15% of the US cocaine market at the time.

After the leaves are harvested, they are soaked in gasoline or kerosene. This is usually done in large metal drums. The leaves are then mulched with a weed eater or wood chipper to create a shredded coca leaf mixture. This mixture is then dried, and the dried substance is dissolved in a solvent such as ethyl acetate, acetone, or ether.

The next step is to heat the dissolved mixture in a hot water bath, to which another solvent and concentrated hydrochloric acid are added. This results in the crystallization of cocaine hydrochloride. Excess solvents are then removed, first by hand and then using a hydraulic press and microwave ovens, to create a powder.

The powder is then processed into cocaine base, which is dissolved in a mixture of water and baking soda. This solution is boiled until the cocaine forms an oily substance that settles at the bottom of the container. After cooling, the oil becomes a rock-like substance—crack cocaine.

In the 1980s, Bolivia's coca networks employed thousands of people, including carriers, manufacturers of coca paste and cocaine, security personnel, and various other positions. The industry had negative side effects, including trafficking and corruption, but it also provided economic opportunities for many Bolivians.

Today, Colombia is the main producer of cocaine, but Bolivia still contributes a significant amount to the global trade. The process of making cocaine has remained consistent over the years, with small laboratories scattered throughout South America dedicated to extracting coca from the leaves and converting it into cocaine.

Bolivia's drug trade is embedded in local cultural norms and values

Bolivia is a major centre for drug production and trafficking, yet it experiences far less drug-related violence than other countries in Latin America. This is because the drug trade in Bolivia is embedded in local cultural norms and values.

In Bolivia's lowland Chapare region, much of the population grows, dries, and sells coca leaves, and some even process the leaves into cocaine paste or smuggle the final product. However, the drug trade in Bolivia is largely peaceful, with only isolated incidents of violence. This is because the drug trade is embedded in local cultural norms and values.

For the Chapareños, sociality is based on entanglements of debt and obligations. Reciprocity, writes anthropologist Catherine Allen, is the “pump at the heart of Andean life,” with community and kinship relationships taking priority. Anyone who gets ahead is forced to reinvest their surplus back into the community. These age-old customs, which infuse coca growers’ involvement in illicit activities, often explicitly exclude outsiders while successfully coexisting with market-oriented strategies.

When Silvio Zavala and his family migrated to the Chapare in the 1960s, they practiced "ayni", a form of reciprocity where one day he would work for his neighbour, and the next day his neighbour would work for him, all with no pay. This form of reciprocity is common in the Chapare region and is a key reason why the drug trade is so embedded in the local culture.

Coca growers' unions are a powerful force in the Chapare region and act as a parallel form of governance. The unions control access to land and only allow people they know into their unions, usually extended kinship networks of neighbours and old friends. Disagreements, including robbery, boundary disputes, or outstanding debts are resolved at community-wide union meetings. The unions also resist state control and have more power than the police, who must ask permission from union leaders to enter an area.

The drug trade in the Chapare region is also peaceful because it is structured around trusted relationships. Coca farmers sell their crops to mostly women coca merchants who are part of their extended kin group. In return, the merchants provide farmers with cash advances and act as godparents to their children. Taxi drivers, who are almost all coca growers, smuggle fuel for paste production and only sell to people they are tied to through kinship or who are close acquaintances. The next step is paste production, which is done by "trusted" young men guided by a more experienced "cook". On the top rung are the acopiadores (collectors), wealthier local farmers who are also part of the web of godparenthood relationships.

Overall, the drug trade in Bolivia is embedded in local cultural norms and values of reciprocity, kinship, and community well-being. This has served to limit the possibilities for violence that is often associated with drug production and trafficking.

The US has been funding Bolivia's government eradication program by an average of $150 million a year

Bolivia is the third-largest grower of coca bushes in the world. Coca leaves are used in the production of cocaine. In the 1980s, Bolivia's most lucrative crop was coca, which was processed clandestinely into cocaine. The country supplied approximately 15% of the US cocaine market in the late 1980s.

The US has been concerned about Bolivia's narcotics production and trafficking. In 1986, US-financed repression began, and in 1987, the US and Bolivia signed a joint agreement to create the National Directorate for the Control of Dangerous Substances (DNCSP). The US has also supported Bolivia's counter-narcotics efforts through funding. Since the 1990s, the US has been funding Bolivia's government eradication program by an average of $150 million a year. This funding has supported alternative development programs and the counter-narcotics police effort.

In 1997, Bolivian President Hugo Banzer developed "Plan Dignidad" to counter the drug trade, with a focus on eradication, interdiction, countering money laundering, and implementing social programs. This plan was supported by the US government and resulted in a decrease in coca production.

However, the forced eradication of coca crops has been controversial, with well-organized coca growers' unions protesting the policy and even using violence to resist. This has led to human rights concerns, as security forces have used force to uphold the policy.

In 2008, tensions between the US and Bolivia escalated when US President George W. Bush placed Bolivia on a counter-narcotics blacklist, stating that Bolivia had "failed demonstrably" to meet commitments to combat illicit drug production and trafficking. In response, Bolivian President Evo Morales accused the US of trying to thwart his policies and supporting pro-autonomy movements. Morales also expelled the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) from the country, ending a 35-year history of DEA activity in Bolivia.

Despite these tensions, the US has continued to support Bolivia's counter-narcotics efforts, although the level of cooperation has been strained at times. The US Embassy in Bolivia provides a range of services to US citizens and businesses and works closely with Bolivian officials to strengthen bilateral relations.

The Bolivian government has been criticised for human rights abuses in its anti-drug efforts

Bolivia has long been associated with the coca plant, which is used in the production of cocaine. The country was the second-largest grower of coca in the world in the 1980s, and its narcotics trade has had a significant impact on Bolivian society and the government's anti-drug efforts.

The Bolivian government has been criticised for human rights abuses in its anti-drug campaigns. Notably, the country's anti-drug law, Law 1008, has been condemned for permitting the imprisonment of Bolivians charged with minor drug offences without the possibility of pre-trial release. The law also mandates that acquitted defendants remain in prison until their acquittal is reviewed by the Supreme Court, a process that can take years. This has resulted in prisoners being held in overcrowded and harsh conditions.

The actions of the anti-narcotics police, particularly in the Chapare region, where most of Bolivia's coca is grown, have also been a cause for concern. There have been reports of arbitrary arrests, manhandling, beatings, stealing, and even torture by Bolivian law enforcement, with the complicity of the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) personnel stationed in the country. The impunity enjoyed by the anti-narcotics police and the lack of accountability due to diplomatic immunity have further exacerbated the situation.

The US role in Bolivia's anti-drug efforts has been controversial. While the US has provided significant funding and equipment to Bolivia's special anti-narcotics police and guided their strategies, it has also been accused of turning a blind eye to human rights abuses. US officials have acknowledged issues with Law 1008 but expressed concern that legislative reform could weaken Bolivia's entire anti-narcotics framework.

The tensions between US counternarcotics pressure and human rights concerns came to a head in 1995 when the US threatened to cut off aid and oppose multilateral bank loans if Bolivia did not undertake certain counternarcotics efforts. This ultimatum contributed to political instability in Bolivia, with the government declaring a state of siege and suspending constitutional rights to suppress opposition to its anti-drug plans.

The complex dynamics of Bolivia's drug trade and the government's attempts to combat it have resulted in human rights abuses and political turmoil. While international cooperation is essential in addressing drug trafficking, it is crucial that human rights standards are upheld and abuses are addressed and investigated promptly.

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