Belize-Guatemala Border Dispute: Who Owns The Territory?

Belize and Guatemala share a border, and Guatemala has disputed its land boundary with Belize since its independence in the 19th century. The border and resulting dispute stem from colonial documents, first between the United Kingdom and Spain, and later between the United Kingdom, on behalf of British Honduras (now Belize), and independent Guatemala. Guatemala has claimed sovereignty over all or part of Belizean territory, and this claim is sometimes reflected in maps that show Belize as Guatemala's 23rd department. The Guatemalan territorial claim involves approximately 53% of Belize's mainland, which includes significant portions of four districts: Belize, Cayo, Stann Creek, and Toledo.

The border dispute remains unresolved and contentious, and both countries are now settling the dispute at the International Court of Justice.

Belize's independence from Guatemala

Belize, formerly known as British Honduras, has a long and complex history of colonisation and independence. The region was first settled by the Maya, who established permanent villages around 2500 BC and went on to build great cities and temples, with over 900 Mayan sites still existing in Belize today. After the collapse of the Mayan civilisation around 900 AD, Belize became a refuge for those fleeing Spanish conquest in the 16th and 17th centuries. The British also took an interest in the region, primarily due to its abundance of logwood, a vital resource for the wool industry. This led to conflict between Britain and Spain, with Spanish forces attacking British logwood traders throughout the 18th century. Despite these attacks, the British maintained their presence in Belize, and by the late 18th century, the territory had become a true British colony.

In 1862, the region was officially designated a crown colony called British Honduras, ruled directly from London by an appointed governor. This marked the beginning of formal British rule in Belize, which lasted until the mid-20th century. During this period, the economy of British Honduras was largely based on forestry, with logwood and mahogany being the main exports. However, by the 1950s, a fervour for independence had emerged in British Honduras, as it was the only country in Central America that was not yet self-governing.

The push for independence faced two major obstacles: British reluctance to grant self-rule and Guatemala's long-standing claim to the territory. Despite these challenges, the British began granting more autonomy to British Honduras, and by 1964, the colony was only responsible for defence, security, and foreign affairs. In 1973, the name "British Honduras" was changed to "Belize", signalling the colony's progression towards independence.

Negotiations for independence began in 1975, but they were complicated by Guatemala's insistence on its right to own Belize. Belizean leaders sought support from the international community, appealing to the United Nations (UN) and joining the Nonaligned Movement. By the late 1970s, Belize had gained the support of several Latin American countries, and in November 1980, the UN passed a resolution demanding Belize's independence.

On September 21, 1981, Belize finally achieved full independence from the United Kingdom, becoming an independent nation recognised by the entire world except Guatemala. The first prime minister of an independent Belize was George Cadle Price, an independence activist who had led the push for self-rule. While Belize has maintained its independence, periodic tensions with Guatemala have persisted, and the territorial dispute between the two countries remains unresolved.

The Belize-Guatemala territorial dispute

Historical Context

During the colonial era, both Spanish and British colonists vied for control of the region, with Spain eventually assuming control of Belize and Guatemala. In 1670, the Godolphin Treaty saw Spain confirm English control of all English-settled territories in the Western Hemisphere, though the exact territories were not defined. In 1763, the Treaty of Paris relinquished British claims in the area in exchange for economic rights. By the 1820s, Spain was rapidly losing its grip on Central America, and in 1821, the provinces of Central America formed an independent Federated Republic. That same year, New Spain (now Mexico) declared independence and absorbed Central America.

The Dispute

Under the new political landscape, Mexico and its territories in Central America claimed inheritance of Spanish claims, which Britain did not recognise. Guatemala insisted it should control all of Belize or split the territory along the Sibun River to respect Mexican claims. However, Britain forced Guatemala and Mexico to recognise British claims, and in 1859, the Wyke-Aycinena Treaty was signed, establishing the modern-day boundary lines of Belize. The treaty also included an article about building a mutually beneficial road, though it was never constructed.

Tensions Flare

In the early 20th century, tensions flared between Guatemala and British Honduras. In 1931, Guatemala and the UK exchanged notes confirming concrete markers implementing the 1859 border lines, but less than a decade later, Guatemala renewed its claims on the area, citing the broken promise of the road as justification for the treaty to be void. In the following decades, there were several military clashes and troop build-ups on both sides of the border.

Independence for Belize

Belize and the British pursued a path to independence, and in 1981, Belize officially gained independence. Guatemala recognised Belizean independence in the early 1990s, but tensions remained. In 1999, Guatemala shifted its stance, claiming it had inherited rights over Belize from the Spanish Empire and the Federal Republic of Central America. In 2008, both countries agreed to hold simultaneous referendums to send the issue to the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The referendums passed in both countries, and as of 2022, the ICJ is expected to rule on the dispute by 2025 at the earliest.

The history of the Belize-Guatemala border

In 1859, Guatemala and Britain negotiated the Wyke-Aycinena Treaty, which recognised British sovereignty over Belize and established the modern-day boundary lines. However, tensions flared up again in the 20th century when Guatemala renewed its claims on the area, citing Britain's failure to comply with economic assistance provisions in the treaty. This led to the stationing of troops on both sides and decades of negotiations. Belize pursued a path to independence, which was officially achieved in 1981, but the border dispute remained unresolved.

Guatemala eventually recognised Belize's independence in the early 1990s, but the dispute continued to simmer. In 1999, Guatemala shifted its stance back to inheriting claims from the Spanish Empire and asserted that it was owed a significant portion of Belize's land mass. This led to a further escalation, with both countries stationing troops at the border.

In 2008, a significant development occurred when Guatemala and Belize agreed to hold simultaneous referendums to send the issue to the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The referendums passed in both countries, and as of 2022, the dispute is being settled at the ICJ. The court's ruling is not expected until 2025 at the earliest.

Throughout its history, the Belize-Guatemala border has been a source of tension and dispute, with Guatemala claiming sovereignty over Belize in whole or in part. The situation has been further complicated by the involvement of other countries, such as Mexico and the United States, and the changing political landscapes of the region.

Guatemala's claim to Belizean territory

In 1821, Guatemala gained independence from Spain and, as a successor state, inherited Spain's sovereignty claims over the area that would become British Honduras and later Belize. In 1859, Guatemala and Great Britain signed the Treaty of Wyke-Aycinena, in which Guatemala agreed to recognise British Honduras and its borders in exchange for the construction of a road from Guatemala City to the Atlantic coast. However, the road was never built, and Guatemala later cited this as a breach of the treaty, rendering it null and void.

In the 1930s, Guatemala renewed its territorial claims, asserting that the 1859 treaty was null and void. In 1945, Guatemala amended its constitution to assert that British Honduras was part of its territory. This led to a series of bilateral negotiations between Britain and Guatemala that ultimately proved unfruitful.

In 1981, Belize gained independence from Britain, and in 1991, Guatemala recognised Belize's independence in order to establish diplomatic relations. However, Guatemala maintained its claim to Belizean territory, arguing that it was the rightful inheritor of Spanish sovereignty in the region. In 1999, Guatemala shifted its stance, limiting its territorial claim to lands between the Sibun and Sarstoon Rivers, based on a series of 18th-century treaties between Britain and Spain.

Guatemala's current claim asserts that an area of over 12,000 square kilometres, currently administered by Belize, was illegally occupied by Britain and is, therefore, sovereign territory of Guatemala. This area constitutes over half of Belize's total landmass and includes significant swaths of the Cayo District, known for its rich farmland, and the Stann Creek District, inhabited by the local Garifuna people.

The dispute has led to conflict between the two nations, including illegal settlements, logging, hunting, fishing, and robberies along the border. In an effort to resolve the dispute, both countries agreed in 2008 to submit the issue to the International Court of Justice, pending a referendum. The referendum took place in both countries in 2019, with a majority voting in favour of sending the issue to the ICJ. As of 2022, both countries have submitted their initial briefs to the ICJ, which is not expected to rule until 2025 at the earliest.

The 1859 Anglo-Guatemalan Treaty

The Anglo-Guatemalan Treaty of 1859, also known as the Wyke-Aycinena Treaty, was an agreement between Britain and Guatemala that recognised British sovereignty over the region of Belize (then known as British Honduras). The treaty was signed on 30 April 1859 in Guatemala City, Guatemala, by Charles Lennox Wyke (representing Britain) and Don Pedro de Aycinena (representing Guatemala).

The treaty established the boundary line between the settlement of Belize and Guatemala, which runs from the mouth of the River Sarstoon in the Bay of Honduras, up the mid-channel to Gracias a Dios Falls, and then turns north until it reaches the Mexican border. This boundary was based on an 1834 declaration by the public meeting of the Baymen, a group of British settlers in the region, and was ratified by both Britain and Guatemala. The treaty also included an article about building a mutually beneficial road between Belize City and Guatemala's capital, although the details of this proposal were left vague and the road was never built.

In the years following the treaty, disagreements arose between Britain and Guatemala over the interpretation of Article VII, which concerned the proposed road. Negotiations over the road eventually stalled, and Guatemala began to question Britain's compliance with the treaty. Despite these tensions, the treaty remained in effect, and in 1931, the two countries exchanged a series of notes confirming concrete markers along the 1859 border lines.

In the early 20th century, Guatemala renewed its claims on the region, arguing that the broken promise of the road voided the treaty. This led to intermittent tensions and negotiations between the two countries throughout the century, as Guatemala continued to assert its sovereignty over Belize. In 1981, Belize gained independence, but the territorial dispute between the two countries remains unresolved.

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