Bahrain's Governance: Authoritarian Rule Or Democratic Transition?

Bahrain, officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, is an island country in West Asia situated on the Persian Gulf. It is a semi-constitutional monarchy ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family, who are Sunni Muslims. The country has been described as an authoritarian regime, with a Democracy Index score of 2.92 in 2011.

Bahrain's ruling family has been criticised for violating the human rights of dissidents, political opposition figures, and its majority Shia Muslim population. The government has been accused of employing tactics to obstruct democratisation, such as controlling the ideological and coercive state apparatus, punishing and imprisoning political activists, and promoting anti-Shī'ī agendas.

The 2011 Arab Spring protests in Bahrain, inspired by the regional movement, resulted in a crackdown on the opposition, with thousands of arrests and reports of systematic torture. Despite some reforms introduced by the ruling family, human rights organisations continue to document cases of suppression of dissent, restricted freedom of expression, unjust imprisonment, and frequent torture.

The Arab Spring protests in 2011

The protests began on 14 February 2011 and were met with an immediate reaction from security forces. Over thirty protesters were injured and one was killed as Bahraini government forces used tear gas, rubber bullets and birdshot to break up demonstrations. However, the protests continued into the evening, drawing several hundred participants. Most of the protesters were Shia Muslims, who make up the majority of Bahrain's population.

The next day, one person attending the funeral of the protester killed on 14 February was shot dead and 25 more were hurt when security officers opened fire on mourners. The same day, thousands of protesters marched to the Pearl Roundabout in the capital, Manama, and occupied it, setting up protest tents and camping out overnight. Sunni activist Mohamed Albuflasa was secretly arrested by security forces after addressing the crowd, making him the first political prisoner of the uprising.

In the early morning of 17 February, security forces retook control of the roundabout, killing four protesters and injuring over 300 in the process. Manama was subsequently placed under lockdown, with tanks and armed soldiers taking up positions around the capital city. In response, Al Wefaq MPs, then the largest bloc, submitted their resignations from the lower house of the National Assembly of Bahrain.

The following day, over 50,000 people took part in the funerals of the victims. In the afternoon, hundreds of them marched to Manama. When they neared the Pearl Roundabout, the army opened fire, injuring dozens and fatally wounding one. Troops withdrew from the Pearl Roundabout on 19 February, and protesters re-established their camps there. The crown prince assured protesters that they would be allowed to camp at the roundabout.

Subsequent days saw large demonstrations. On 21 February, a pro-government "Gathering of National Unity" drew tens of thousands, while on 22 February the number of protesters at the Pearl Roundabout peaked at over 150,000 after more than 100,000 protesters marched there. On 25 February, a national day of mourning was announced and large anti-government marches were staged. Participants were twice as numerous as those in the 22 February march, estimated at 40% of Bahraini citizens.

As protests intensified towards the end of the month, King Hamad was forced to offer concessions in the form of the release of political prisoners and the dismissal of three government ministers. However, the opposition expressed dissatisfaction with the government's response. A counter-demonstration on 2 March was staged, reportedly the largest political gathering in Bahrain's history in support of the government.

On 13 March, the government reacted strongly, with riot police firing tear gas canisters and tearing down protest tents in the Pearl Roundabout. The following day, 1,000 troops from Saudi Arabia, 500 troops from the UAE and naval ships from Kuwait entered Bahrain and crushed the uprising. A day later, King Hamad declared martial law and a three-month state of emergency. The Pearl Roundabout was cleared of protesters and the iconic statue at its centre was demolished.

The Bahraini uprising is the only Arab Spring protest to have been definitively put down. One reason for this is the presence of the US Navy's 5th Fleet in Bahrain, giving the US a major presence in the region. In addition, Saudi Arabia did not want protests in its backyard and did not want a Shia-led uprising to encourage its arch-rival, Shia-dominated Iran.

The Bahraini government's response to the Arab Spring

However, the government responded with violence and repression. On 17 February, the police launched a surprise attack on the protesters, killing several people. The army was then sent in to prevent people from returning to the roundabout. When some protesters attempted to return the next day, they were met with live ammunition. Despite this brutality, people still managed to reoccupy the roundabout, and the numbers of protesters grew.

The Bahraini government also employed other tactics to disempower the opposition and ensure its long-term power. This included political naturalization, where large numbers of poor Sunni Arabs from other countries were given Bahraini citizenship, thereby creating a loyal constituency and expanding the secret police, police force, and army. The government also engaged in land-grab schemes, causing housing prices to rise and further exacerbating economic grievances.

In response to the growing protests, the king of Bahrain declared a three-month state of emergency on 15 March 2011 and requested military intervention from the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Saudi and UAE troops entered the country and helped to crush the protests. The Bahraini army and police carried out a brutal crackdown on peaceful and unarmed protesters, including doctors and bloggers. There were midnight house raids, beatings at checkpoints, and denial of medical care. More than 2,900 people were arrested, and at least five people died due to torture while in police custody.

The Bahraini government also attempted to portray the protests as sectarian and claimed that they were directed by Iran, even though the protests were largely driven by economic and political grievances. The government's response to the Arab Spring ultimately resulted in a prolonged campaign of repression and a further clampdown on opposition groups in the years that followed.

The country's human rights record

Bahrain has been described as having a "dismal" human rights situation, with the country being ruled by an authoritarian regime. The country's human rights record has been the subject of criticism from organisations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, as well as from the European Parliament and the US State Department.

One of the main issues is the treatment of the Shia Muslim majority by the ruling Sunni Muslim Al Khalifa royal family, which has been in power since 1783. The Shia community has often complained of being politically repressed and economically marginalised, and most of the protestors in the 2011 Bahraini uprising were Shia. The monarchy has long been accused of favouring the minority Sunnis and establishing a system that critics have compared to South African apartheid.

In the aftermath of the 2011 crackdown on protests, King Hamad created the Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry (BICI) to investigate human rights abuses. The BICI reported that hundreds of people had been convicted for peacefully protesting and criticising the government, and it recommended that the convictions be reviewed and sentences commuted. However, rather than redressing past crimes, the regime has doubled down, attempting to stamp out dissent.

Abuses by security forces continue and remain generally immune from punishment. This situation has been described as "impossible to reconcile with even minimal standards of justice". Moreover, torture is government policy. The BICI reported that security agencies "followed a systematic practice of physical and psychological mistreatment, which in many cases amounted to torture, with respect to a large number of detainees in their custody".

Large-scale repression has undermined what was once a growing, if limited, civil society. Facing special scrutiny have been political organisations and labour unions. A 2013 Human Rights Watch report noted that:

> "authorities use the law to suppress civil society and restrict freedom of association in three main ways: by arbitrarily rejecting registration applications and intrusively supervising NGOs; taking over and dissolving—more or less at will—organizations whose leaders have criticized government officials or their policies; and severely limiting the ability of groups to fundraise and receive foreign funding."

Repression of independent media is also common, with increasing attacks on independent journalists.

Other human rights issues in Bahrain include:

• Restrictions on freedom of expression, with journalists risking prosecution for "undermining" the government and religion.
• Unjust imprisonment, with thousands of arrests conducted during the crackdown on the 2011 opposition.
• Frequent torture and other ill-treatment of citizens.
• Lack of judicial independence, with no independent judiciary.
• Social discrimination, including against Sunnis.
• Travel bans on political activists.
• Revocation of citizenship.

The role of the media in Bahrain

The media in Bahrain has been described as "media-assisted authoritarianism", with the ecosystem shaped by the security interests of the ruling family, initially the British, and following Independence in 1971, Saudi Arabia and the United States. The media has been leveraged as a means of distributing state propaganda and public relations.

The first newspaper, Jaridat Al-Bahrain, and the first radio station, Bahrain Broadcasting Station, were opened in 1939 and 1940 respectively. Both were designed as vehicles for British war propaganda and closed down by the end of World War II. More newspapers opened in the 1950s, some of which were critical of British rule and the Al-Khalifa family. However, by 1956, all of these had been closed down by the government, which exercised strict control over publishing and broadcasting.

Media reforms in the late 1970s and 1980s, and the creation of the first National Assembly in 1973, signalled a loosening of autocracy in the media sphere. However, this was short-lived, and the government has historically responded to political crises with reactionary measures, tightening control over the media.

Today, all radio and television broadcasts in Bahrain are state-controlled by the Bahrain Radio and Television Corporation (BRTC), which is owned by the government and operates under the Ministry of Information Affairs. The government also controls what satellite channels are available by jamming unwanted signals. The Bahrain News Agency, the major national news broadcaster, is state-owned, and six out of seven daily newspapers are pro-government and owned by figures closely associated with the Bahraini government. The only independent daily newspaper, Al-Wasat, was indefinitely suspended in 2017.

The government controls both online and offline content, blocking and filtering online content through internet service providers. Social media platforms are accessible but heavily censored, and users face interrogation, prosecution, and threats for their activities. The government has also been known to block and shut down websites, including human rights websites, blogs, and online forums.

The Bahraini government has also used travel bans, citizenship revocation, and arbitrary arrests to control public opinion and suppress dissent.

The influence of foreign powers

Bahrain's foreign relations are heavily influenced by its strategic location in the Persian Gulf, housing the US Fifth Fleet in its capital, Manama. The country has established bilateral relations with 190 countries and maintains a network of embassies, consulates, and permanent missions.

Historically, Bahrain has been ruled by various foreign powers, including the Portuguese Empire from 1521 to 1602 and the British Empire from the late 1800s until its independence in 1971. Today, Bahrain's foreign relations are complex and often shaped by regional dynamics and alliances.

Relations with the United States

The United States and Bahrain have a close relationship, with the US designating Bahrain as a ""major non-NATO ally" in 2001. Bahrain hosts a significant US military presence, including the US Fifth Fleet and around 6,000 US military personnel. This relationship has been criticised by human rights organisations, who argue that the US has turned a blind eye to human rights abuses by the Bahraini regime.

Relations with Saudi Arabia

Bahrain has a strong alliance with Saudi Arabia, which shares Bahrain's anti-Shī'ī agenda. During the 2011 Arab Spring protests, Saudi troops were deployed to Bahrain to crush the opposition. Bahrain remains financially and militarily dependent on Saudi Arabia, although economic reforms are gradually reducing this reliance.

Relations with Iran

Relations between Bahrain and Iran tend to be tense due to a failed coup attempt in 1981, which Bahrain blames on Iran. Bahrain has also accused Iran of providing logistical support to Bahraini activists, although evidence suggests these claims are false. Ultra-conservative elements in Iran occasionally assert sovereignty over Bahrain, further straining relations between the two countries.

Relations with Other Countries

Bahrain has established relations with a diverse range of countries, including Israel, with whom it normalised relations in 2020. It is a member of several international organisations, including the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and the Gulf Cooperation Council.

In conclusion, Bahrain's foreign relations are complex and influenced by various regional and global powers. The country's strategic location in the Persian Gulf has made it a key ally for the United States, while its relations with Saudi Arabia and Iran are often shaped by religious and political tensions.

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