Bahrain: A Truly Free Country?

Bahrain has been described as one of the Middle East's more repressive states, with a monarchy that maintains a monopoly on political power. The country has been criticised by Amnesty International for its human rights violations, including the repression of peaceful protests, the blocking of Shia Muslims from reaching the main Shia mosque in Bahrain, and the violation of the rights of people deprived of their liberty. Bahrain has also been criticised for its inadequate rules on heat protection, putting outdoor workers exposed to heat stress at risk.

Bahrain's political reform and transition to democracy

Bahrain was once considered a model for political reform and democratic transition. However, since the violent suppression of a pro-democracy protest movement in 2011, the country has become one of the more repressive states in the Middle East. The Sunni-led monarchy has systematically eliminated political rights and civil liberties, dismantled the political opposition, and cracked down on dissent, particularly within the Shiite population.

The 2002 constitution grants the king power over the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. While the lower house of the National Assembly consists of 40 elected members serving four-year terms, the king appoints the members of the upper house, the Consultative Council. Formal political parties are not permitted, but members of "political societies" have participated in elections. However, the electoral framework is designed to underrepresent Shiites, who form a majority of the citizen population.

In recent years, the Bahraini government has revoked citizenship as a political and criminal punishment, leaving many people stateless. While international pressure has led to the restoration of citizenship for some, this has not included prominent opposition activists. The government has also continued to harass and prosecute critics, repress peaceful protests, and block Shia Muslims from practising their religion.

In terms of freedom of expression, the Bahraini authorities own all national broadcast media outlets, and private owners of newspapers have close ties to the state. Self-censorship is encouraged, and journalists face legal and bureaucratic obstacles in their work. Criticism of the government, monarch, or Islam can result in imprisonment. The government selectively blocks online content, including opposition websites and content critical of religion or highlighting human rights abuses.

While Bahrain has taken some positive steps, such as annulling an article in the Penal Code that allowed rapists to escape prosecution by marrying their victims, there are still significant concerns about the country's political reform and transition to democracy.

The country's human rights record

Bahrain has been described as one of the Middle East's more repressive states. Since violently crushing a popular pro-democracy protest movement in 2011, the Sunni-led monarchy has systematically eliminated a broad range of political rights and civil liberties, dismantled the political opposition, and cracked down on persistent dissent particularly among the Shiite population.

The government has continued to revoke citizenship as a political and criminal punishment, sometimes leaving people stateless. However, after international pressure, the king ordered a series of reviews, and by late 2019, nearly two-thirds of those affected had their citizenship restored.

In 2019, Bahrain's highest court upheld the life sentence given to Ali Salman, leader of the disbanded opposition party Al-Wefaq, for allegedly spying for Qatar during the 2011 anti-government protests. Three men were executed in July that year, two of them for terrorism-related offences, despite concerns from UN experts about flawed trials and the use of coerced confessions.

In August 2019, political prisoners went on hunger strike to protest mistreatment in custody, including the alleged denial of medical care and religious discrimination against Shiite prisoners.

Bahrain's electoral framework has been described as unfair, with electoral districts deliberately designed to underrepresent Shiites, who form a majority of the citizen population. The ruling family maintains a monopoly on political power, and the system's structure excludes the possibility of a change in government through elections.

Formal political parties are illegal, and a 2005 law makes it illegal to form political associations based on class, profession, or religion. The law permits "political societies" to operate after registering with the government, but the authorities have closed down almost all opposition political societies since 2016. Individual opposition leaders and activists routinely face harassment, imprisonment, or exile.

The monarchy generally excludes the public from meaningful political participation and has used the security forces to isolate the country's Shiite population and suppress political dissent. There have been repeated allegations that the royal court uses its patronage networks to influence candidates and elections.

Although Shiites make up a majority of the country's citizens, they tend to be underrepresented in both chambers of the National Assembly and the cabinet. The regime, dominated by a Sunni ruling family, is committed to preventing Shiites from organising independently to advance their political interests. Even Sunnis face restrictions on their ability to engage in independent political activity due to the dominant role of the monarchy.

Women formally enjoy full political rights, but they are typically marginalised in practice; political societies rarely select female candidates. While some progress has been made in women's rights, such as the annulment of Article 353 of the Penal Code, which allowed rapists to escape prosecution by marrying their victims, discrimination is still common in practice, and women are generally at a disadvantage in matters of family law.

Noncitizens make up just over half of the total population, and most have no political rights. Citizenship is generally inherited from a Bahraini father, and foreign men married to Bahraini women do not have access to naturalisation.

The government owns all national broadcast media outlets, and the private owners of Bahrain's main newspapers have close ties to the state. The only independent newspaper, Al-Wasat, was banned in 2017. Self-censorship is encouraged by the vaguely worded Press Law, which allows the state to imprison journalists for criticising the king or Islam or for threatening national security. Insulting the king is punishable by up to seven years in prison.

Although non-Muslim minorities are generally free to practice their faiths, Shiite communities and clerics often face harassment, interrogation, prosecution, and imprisonment. An estimated 45 Shiite religious sites were demolished or vandalised in 2011 in apparent reprisal for the role of Shiite opposition groups in that year's protests.

Bahrain has been described as inconsistent in its reaction to peaceful protests, repressing some but not others. Authorities did not act to prevent or break up periodic marches and other street protests in the Shia-majority suburban areas to the west of the capital, Manama. However, on other occasions, the government has summoned, warned, intimidated, and arrested actual or potential protesters.

Torture is criminalised, but detainees frequently report mistreatment by security forces and prison officials, who are rarely held accountable. In August 2019, political prisoners went on hunger strike to protest against poor treatment in custody, including the alleged denial of medical care.

There are some laws in place to combat corruption, but enforcement is weak, and high-ranking officials or members of the royal family who are suspected of corruption are rarely punished. Civil society anti-corruption efforts are also restricted.

Although academic freedom is not formally restricted, scholars who criticise the government are subject to dismissal. In 2011, several faculty members and administrators were fired for supporting the call for democracy, and hundreds of students were expelled.

Bahraini citizens' freedom of movement is restricted inside the country, particularly for residents of largely Shiite villages outside Manama, where the government maintains a heavy security presence. The government also obstructs foreign travel by numerous opposition figures and activists.

Although registered businesses are largely free to operate, obtaining approval can be difficult in practice. Shiite citizens encounter difficulties in obtaining affordable housing and, in some cases, face bans on purchasing land. Much of the country's scarce land is occupied by royal properties and military facilities.

Freedom of expression and belief in Bahrain

Bahrain's constitution guarantees the right to express and publish opinions, but with the provision that these do not infringe on the "fundamental beliefs of Islamic doctrine" and do not prejudice the "unity of the people" or arouse discord or sectarianism. The law prohibits publications and broadcast media programs that violate Islam, undermine national unity, or promote division and sectarianism. It also mandates imprisonment for "exposing the state's official religion to offence and criticism".

The government generally allows freedom of worship for religious minorities, but continues its discrimination against some Shia Muslims. While they are generally free to worship, Shia Bahrainis have long faced difficulties in employment, political representation, freedom of expression, promotion within the military, and mosque construction. Shia clerics and community leaders often face harassment, interrogation, prosecution, and imprisonment. Shia religious sites have been demolished or vandalised, and Shia clergy have been detained or questioned for taking part in protests or being suspected of doing so.

The government also revoked the citizenship of senior Shia cleric Isa Qassim in 2016, and he was given a suspended one-year prison sentence for money laundering in 2017; he left Bahrain in 2018. In 2019, political prisoners went on hunger strike to protest mistreatment in custody, including the alleged denial of medical care and religious discrimination against Shia prisoners.

Bahrain's media environment is restrictive, with no independent broadcast media and only one independent newspaper, which was banned in 2017. Self-censorship is encouraged by the vaguely worded Press Law, which allows the state to imprison journalists for criticising the king or Islam or for threatening national security. Insulting the king is punishable by up to seven years in prison. The government selectively blocks online content, including opposition websites and content that criticises religion or highlights human rights abuses.

Bahrain's constitution provides for freedom of conscience, the inviolability of places of worship, and freedom to perform religious rites. The constitution also provides for the freedom to form associations as long as they do not infringe on the official religion or public order, and prohibits discrimination based on religion or creed. The labour law pertaining to the private sector prohibits discrimination against workers on the grounds of religion or belief.

Non-Muslim religious groups, mainly composed of non-citizens, continue to report freedom to openly practice their religion without government interference. The government has also taken steps to promote peaceful coexistence among religious groups, such as the creation of the King Hamad Centre for Peaceful Co-existence.

The country's treatment of its Shia population

Bahrain is a small but strategic island nation in the Persian Gulf, just off the coast of Saudi Arabia. It has a population of around 700,000 citizens, of whom approximately 62% are Shia Muslims and 38% are Sunni Muslims. Shia Muslims are the majority in Bahrain, but the country is governed by the Sunni royal family, Al Khalifa. This has led to political tensions and a perception among the Shia community that they are treated as second-class citizens.

The origins of Shia Islam in Bahrain can be traced back to 656–661 AD, during the caliphate reign of Ali ibn Abi Talib. The Islamic prophet Muhammad sent envoys to the ruler of Bahrain at the time, inviting him to Islam. Bahrain's ruler converted to Islam, and the people of Bahrain became Muslims. Over time, Shia Islam became entrenched in Bahrain, and by the 13th century, the country had produced several prominent Shia theologians and scholars.

In recent years, Bahrain's Shia population has faced various challenges and discrimination from the Sunni-led monarchy. Here is an overview of the country's treatment of its Shia citizens:

Political Representation and Participation

Bahrain's electoral framework has been designed to underrepresent the Shia majority, who have never been able to obtain majority representation in parliament. The ruling family maintains a monopoly on political power, and the system excludes the possibility of a change in government through elections. Electoral districts are deliberately drawn to disadvantage the Shia population, and the government has been accused of using patronage networks to influence elections. While Shia opposition forces have participated in parliamentary elections in the past, they boycotted the 2014 legislative elections due to unfair processes.

Citizenship and Security Presence

The Bahraini government has actively worked to erode the Shia citizen majority by recruiting foreign-born Sunnis to serve in the security forces and granting them citizenship. In contrast, hundreds of Bahrainis, including many Shia leaders and activists, have had their citizenship revoked in recent years. The government maintains a heavy security presence in primarily Shia villages, and Shia citizens face restrictions on their movement within the country.

Religious Freedom and Practice

While Shia communities are generally free to carry out religious observances, their clerics and community leaders often face harassment, interrogation, prosecution, and imprisonment. In 2011, an estimated 45 Shia religious sites were demolished or vandalised in apparent reprisal for the role of Shia opposition groups in that year's pro-democracy protests. Shia Muslims also face restrictions on their ability to independently organise and advance their political interests.

Economic Opportunities

Shia citizens of both Arab and Persian ethnicity face de facto discrimination in employment and are largely excluded from the security forces. They are perceived to be relegated to non-security ministries, such as health and education, which may put Sunni applicants at a disadvantage in these sectors. Shia citizens also encounter difficulties in obtaining affordable housing and, in some cases, face bans on purchasing land.

Education and Academic Freedom

While academic freedom is not formally restricted, scholars who criticise the government are subject to dismissal. During the 2011 pro-democracy protests, several faculty members and administrators were fired for their support of the movement, and hundreds of students were expelled.

Freedom of Assembly and Association

Holding demonstrations and gatherings in Bahrain requires a permit, and various restrictions make it challenging to organise legal protests, particularly in Shia villages. Participants in political protests can face long jail terms, and police often use force to disperse gatherings. Shia activists have been detained, tortured, and subjected to unfair trials.

In summary, Bahrain's Shia population faces discrimination, marginalisation, and repression in various aspects of their lives. They are underrepresented politically, face security crackdowns, and have limited freedom of assembly and association. The government's efforts to alter the demographic balance in favour of Sunnis further contribute to the challenges faced by the Shia community.

The country's freedom of assembly

Bahrain's freedom of assembly is limited, with a permit required to hold demonstrations. A variety of restrictions make it difficult to organise a legal gathering in practice. Police frequently use force to break up political protests, which mostly occur in Shiite villages. Participants can face long jail terms, especially if the demonstrations involve clashes with security personnel. In July 2019, police used tear gas to disperse protests that followed the execution of two Shiite activists.

The government's response to peaceful protests is inconsistent, repressing some but not others. Authorities did not act to prevent or break up marches and street protests in the Shia-majority suburban areas to the west of the capital, Manama. However, on other occasions, the government has summoned, warned, intimidated and arrested actual or potential protesters. For example, in February, the government summoned several family members of Bahrainis imprisoned or killed by government forces in the past and warned them against protesting around the anniversary of the 2011 uprising.

In May 2019, the Interior Ministry warned that Bahrainis could be found guilty of cybercrimes simply for following or sharing content from Twitter accounts deemed to promote "sedition". The security forces are believed to use networks of informers, and the government monitors the personal communications of activists, critics, and opposition members.

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