Prussia And Austria: Historical Neighbors, Not One Country

Austria and Prussia were the two most powerful German states in the Holy Roman Empire by the 18th and 19th centuries. Prussia, which originated in Brandenburg, became a great European power in the 18th century under the reign of Frederick II. Austria, on the other hand, retained its pre-eminence until the second half of the 19th century. Both countries were rivals, with Prussia seeking to unite the German principalities into a Kleindeutsche Lösung (Lesser Germany) that would exclude the Austrian Empire. This rivalry culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which Prussia won, resulting in the exclusion of Austria from Germany and the dissolution of the German Confederation. After the war, Prussia formed the North German Confederation, which became the core of the German Empire in 1871.

Austria and Prussia were the most powerful German states in the Holy Roman Empire by the 18th and 19th centuries

Austria and Prussia were the two most powerful German states in the Holy Roman Empire by the 18th and 19th centuries. The rivalry between the two powers was characterised by major territorial conflicts and economic, cultural, and political differences. This rivalry was an important element of the German question in the 19th century, which centred on the best nation-state to unify Germany.

The roots of the rivalry can be traced back to the death of the Habsburg Emperor Charles VI in 1740, which sparked a conflict over the succession to the Austrian throne. Charles VI's daughter, Maria Theresa, claimed the right to succeed her father, but rival claimants disputed this. The new Prussian king, Frederick II, took advantage of the situation and invaded Silesia, a province in the kingdom of Bohemia and part of the Habsburg monarchy. This marked the beginning of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748), which also included the Silesian Wars between Prussia and Austria. Despite being greatly outnumbered by Austria's forces, Prussia emerged victorious and secured the conquest of Silesia in the Treaties of Dresden (1745) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).

During the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), Prussian forces occupied Saxony, which had allied itself with Austria. However, Prussia was forced to withdraw from Saxony in the Treaty of Hubertusburg of 1763, although it retained control of Silesia. After these wars, Prussia and Austria dominated German affairs, with their rivalry referred to as "German dualism". This term describes the tension between the two powers, which had become so powerful that only each other could keep the other in check.

The rivalry between Austria and Prussia continued into the 19th century, with both states vying for supremacy among the smaller German kingdoms. They first met in the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years' War in the mid-18th century, and the conflict culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. This war resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states and the abolition of the German Confederation. Prussia formed the North German Confederation in 1867, excluding Austria and the other southern German states. The defeat marked the end of Austria's struggle for hegemony in Germany, and the two states became close allies.

Austria and Prussia were rivals, but they had some important characteristics in common

Firstly, neither Austria nor Prussia was populated by a single ethnic group. Instead, they were both home to numerous peoples speaking different languages and belonging to different religions. This diversity presented unique challenges and opportunities for each state in terms of governance and cultural relations.

Secondly, both states had territories that extended beyond the borders of the Holy Roman Empire. They had sizable eastern territories and shared a mutual desire to expand further in that direction. This expansionist outlook often brought them into conflict with neighbouring states and sometimes even with each other, as they competed for resources and influence.

Thirdly, both Austria and Prussia were governed by enlightened monarchs who believed in the concept of governance "for the people but not by the people". These monarchs, such as Maria Theresa of Austria and Frederick II of Prussia, implemented extensive reforms and modernised their respective administrations. They strengthened their armies, centralised power, and generally governed using the most efficient methods known at the time.

Additionally, both states were fairly tolerant compared to the standards of the 18th century. Prussia, for example, accepted many Protestant refugees expelled from other states, including the Huguenots fleeing France after the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Meanwhile, Austria became one of the first states to grant Jews the freedom to settle and practise their professions of choice within its territories.

In conclusion, despite their rivalry and competition for dominance, Austria and Prussia shared several important characteristics. These similarities ranged from their multi-ethnic compositions and expansionist ambitions to their enlightened monarchs and relatively tolerant policies. These commonalities shaped their respective histories and influenced their roles within the broader context of European politics and diplomacy during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Prussia was a historic state originating in Brandenburg

Brandenburg-Prussia was marked by religious diversity, with its ruler, John Sigismund, adopting Calvinism in 1613, though he failed to convert the estates, leading to the granting of religious freedom to Lutherans in 1615. This religious tolerance extended to the immigration policy under "The Great Elector", Frederick William, who invited Protestant refugees from across Europe to settle in Brandenburg-Prussia, including Huguenots through the Edict of Potsdam.

The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) devastated Brandenburg-Prussia, with the Elector changing sides three times, resulting in the region being ravaged by Protestant and Catholic armies. The Peace of Westphalia, which ended the war, saw Brandenburg gain several territories, including the Bishopric of Minden, the Principality of Halberstadt, and succession in Farther Pomerania.

The second half of the 17th century witnessed the emergence of Brandenburg-Prussia as a significant player in European politics, marked by notable military victories and the establishment of a standing army in 1653. The introduction of this standing army was a pivotal moment, as it formed the basis for the state's growing influence and power projection.

In 1701, Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg, elevated his status to become King in Prussia, marking the transition from Brandenburg-Prussia to the Kingdom of Prussia. This elevation was made possible by the Duchy of Prussia's sovereign status outside the jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Empire and the approval of other European royals.

Despite the formal elevation, Brandenburg was still legally part of the Holy Roman Empire, and the personal union between Brandenburg and Prussia continued until the Empire's dissolution in 1806 by Napoleon Bonaparte. However, in practice, Brandenburg was treated as an integral part of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1701 onwards.

The Kingdom of Prussia, with its capital in Berlin, became a driving force behind the unification of Germany, playing a pivotal role in the creation of the North German Confederation in 1866 and the unified German Empire in 1871. Prussia's dominance within these confederations was evident, and it retained its influence even after the Empire's dissolution in 1918.

Austria and Prussia fought a series of wars over the province of Silesia

Austria and Prussia were the most powerful German states in the Holy Roman Empire by the 18th and 19th centuries. They engaged in a struggle for supremacy among smaller German kingdoms. The rivalry was characterised by major territorial conflicts, economic, cultural, and political aspects. The rivalry was an important element of the German question in the 19th century.

The two opponents first met in the Silesian Wars, which were three wars fought in the mid-18th century between Prussia (under King Frederick the Great) and Habsburg Austria (under Empress Maria Theresa) for control of the Central European region of Silesia (now in southwestern Poland). The Silesian Wars were fought as so-called cabinet wars in which disciplined regular armies were equipped and supplied by the state to conduct warfare on behalf of the sovereign's interests.

The First Silesian War (1740-1742) was the first of three Silesian Wars fought between Frederick the Great's Prussia and Maria Theresa's Austria in the mid-18th century, all three of which ended in Prussian control of Silesia. The war was fought mainly in Silesia, Moravia, and Bohemia (the lands of the Bohemian Crown) and formed one theatre of the wider War of the Austrian Succession. It was triggered by the death of the Habsburg Emperor Charles VI in 1740, which left his daughter, Maria Theresa, as the ruler of Austria, as well as of the Bohemian and Hungarian lands within the Habsburg monarchy. Prussia, Bavaria, and Saxony promptly contested the succession, and Prussia seized the opportunity to invade and take control of Silesia. The war ended with the 1742 Treaty of Berlin, which recognised Prussia's seizure of most of Silesia and parts of Bohemia.

The Second Silesian War (1744-1745) formed another part of the War of the Austrian Succession. It began when Prussia declared its intervention in the ongoing conflict on behalf of Emperor Charles Albert and led soldiers across the frontier into Bohemia in August 1744. The Prussian forces seized Prague in September and this new threat drew the Austrian army back from France through Bavaria. The Prussians were eventually forced to abandon Bohemia and retreat into Upper Silesia in November. The Second Silesian War ended with the Treaty of Dresden in December 1745, which confirmed the status quo ante bellum, with Prussia retaining control of Silesia.

The Third Silesian War (1756-1763) was a theatre of the global Seven Years' War, in which Austria led a coalition of powers aiming to seize Prussian territory. The war began when Prussia preemptively invaded neighbouring Saxony in August 1756. As Austria's and Prussia's allies joined the fighting, the conflict quickly widened into what became the pan-European Seven Years' War. The war ended in 1763 with the Treaty of Hubertusburg, which confirmed the status quo ante bellum, with Prussia retaining control of Silesia.

The rivalry between Austria and Prussia was an important element of the German question in the 19th century

Austria and Prussia were the most powerful German states in the Holy Roman Empire by the 18th and 19th centuries. The rivalry between the two states was characterised by major territorial conflicts and economic, cultural, and political differences. The rivalry was an important element of the German question in the 19th century, with nationalists debating whether a unified Germany should include Austria (the "Greater Germany" solution) or exclude it (the "Lesser Germany" solution).

The rivalry between Austria and Prussia began in the middle of the 18th century with the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years' War, culminating in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. The two states first clashed when King Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Austrian-controlled Silesia in 1740, starting the First Silesian War (of three Silesian Wars to come) against Maria Theresa. Prussia decisively defeated Austrian troops at the 1742 Battle of Chotusitz, resulting in Maria Theresa ceding most of the Silesian lands to Prussia.

During the Second Silesian War, which began in 1744, Frederick invaded Bohemia, and after the Prussian victory at the 1745 Battle of Kesselsdorf, the status quo was confirmed: Frederick kept Silesia but acknowledged the accession of Maria Theresa's husband, Emperor Francis I. The terms were confirmed by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. However, Maria Theresa still sought to reclaim Silesia, and during the breathing space, she implemented civil and military reforms within the Austrian lands, including the establishment of the Theresian Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt in 1751.

The Third Silesian War (also known as the wider Seven Years' War) began in 1756 when Frederick once again took preemptive action by invading Saxony. However, he faced challenges as Russian forces attacked East Prussia, and Austrian troops entered Silesia. The situation worsened when Austrian and Russian forces united and inflicted a crushing defeat on Frederick at the 1759 Battle of Kunersdorf. Only the death of the Russian Empress Elizabeth in January 1762, which led to her successor making peace with Prussia, saved Frederick from the brink of defeat. The Treaty of Hubertusburg in 1763 marked the third time that Austria had to acknowledge the Prussian annexations.

After the Napoleonic Wars, the German states were reorganised into 37 separate states of the German Confederation. German nationalists began to demand a unified Germany, and the rivalry between Austria and Prussia intensified as they competed to be the nation-state to accomplish this. The "Lesser Germany" solution favoured Protestant Prussia annexing all the German states except Austria, while "Greater Germany" favoured Catholic Austria taking control of the separate German states.

The rivalry culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, also known as the Seven Weeks' War or the Fraternal War, which resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states and the abolition of the German Confederation. Prussia formed an alliance with the Kingdom of Italy, linking this conflict to Italian unification. The war erupted due to a dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which they had jointly conquered from Denmark in the Second Schleswig War in 1864. Prussia's invasion of Holstein in June 1866, in response to Austria's decision to permit the estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, marked the beginning of the war.

The Prussian Army, aided by its superior mobilisation system and railway network, rapidly advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was concentrating for an invasion of Silesia. The Prussian armies converged and decisively defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Königgrätz (Hradec Králové) on July 3, 1866. An armistice between Prussia and Austria came into effect on July 22, and a preliminary peace was signed on July 26. The Peace of Prague in August 1866 resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation, the unification of all northern German states in the North German Confederation (excluding Austria and the other southern German states), and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs.

After the Austro-Prussian War, Prussia became the dominant power in the new German nation-state, and the rivalry between the two states is often considered to have subsided after the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Germany, led by Prussia, had become the superior power to Austria-Hungary.

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