Austria-Hungary's Balkan Identity: A Complex Historical Geography

The Austro-Hungarian Empire's involvement in the Balkans was a significant factor in the lead-up to World War I. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, formerly Ottoman territories, upset the fragile balance of power in the region, enraging Serbia and pan-Slavic nationalists. This action, driven by the Empire's aspirations to strengthen its presence in the Balkans and counter Russian influence, had far-reaching consequences. The crisis damaged relations with neighbouring countries, particularly Serbia, Italy and Russia, and laid the groundwork for the outbreak of World War I. The complex dynamics in the Balkans, including nationalist ambitions and the decline of the Ottoman Empire, created a volatile environment that ultimately contributed to the eruption of the First World War.

Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Background:

The mid-1870s witnessed a series of violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans. The Russian Tsar, Alexander II, wanted to intervene and obtained an agreement with Austria-Hungary. In the Budapest Conventions of 1877, Russia agreed to annex Bessarabia, while Austria-Hungary pledged neutrality. As compensation, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungary's control of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The Russians then declared war on the Ottomans and, after initial setbacks, drove them back to within a few miles of Constantinople. However, the other great powers, particularly Britain and Austria-Hungary, enforced the London Straits Convention of 1841, which prevented the Russian fleet from passing through the Straits of Constantinople.

The Treaty of San Stefano and the Congress of Berlin:

After their victory, the Russians imposed the Treaty of San Stefano on the Ottomans, which included a provision for the joint occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Russian and Austrian troops. However, this treaty was overturned by the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, which gave Austria-Hungary special rights in these provinces.

Austrian Administration and Annexation:

Austria-Hungary administered Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1878, but the Ottoman Empire remained the nominal legal owner. Over time, Austria-Hungary invested significantly in the region, improving its economic and strategic value. In 1908, when the Young Turks staged a revolution in Constantinople, the Austrian foreign minister, Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal, saw an opportunity to assert control.

Aehrenthal met with the Russian foreign minister, Alexander Izvolsky, and on September 16, 1908, they reached an agreement. Russia would not object to the annexation, and in return, Austria-Hungary would not oppose the opening of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits to Russian warships.

On October 6, 1908, Emperor Franz Joseph announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, declaring his determination to grant them an autonomous and constitutional regime under his authority.

International Reactions and Consequences:

The annexation sparked outrage and protestations from Serbia, Russia, and other Great Powers. Serbia mobilized its army and demanded compensation, while Russia faced strong domestic opposition to the annexation. The crisis damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbors, particularly Serbia, Italy, and Russia. It also contributed to the outbreak of World War I, as the struggle for power in the Balkans escalated into a wider international conflict.

In summary, Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was a complex diplomatic maneuver that upset the fragile balance of power in Europe, inflamed nationalist sentiments, and ultimately played a significant role in shaping the course of history leading up to World War I.

The Bosnian Crisis

The origins of the crisis date back to the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which reorganised South-East Europe. The Habsburg Empire attained the right to occupy the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. The Treaty of Berlin granted Austria-Hungary the right to build its own administration in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it did, investing enormous efforts in the infrastructural development of the region. However, the provinces officially remained Ottoman possessions.

In 1908, the Young Turk Revolution in the Ottoman Empire raised fears in Vienna that the new rulers would enforce a restoration of Ottoman political power in Bosnia and Herzegovina. To prevent this, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, Alois Aehrenthal, formulated a plan to solidify Austria-Hungary's position towards Serbia through the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In July 1908, Aehrenthal met with his Russian counterpart, Alexander Izvolsky, at Buchlau Castle in Moravia. Aehrenthal proposed that in exchange for Russian approval of the annexation, Austria-Hungary would not object to opening the Bosporus and Dardanelles Straits to Russian warships. Izvolsky agreed, but he assumed he would be informed of the date of the annexation and that other political powers would be consulted.

On 6 October 1908, the Habsburg Monarchy informed the Ottoman Empire of its annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, stressing that Austrian troops would be withdrawn from the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. This time, Austria-Hungary had become the de jure ruler of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The annexation was met with strong opposition in Constantinople and outrage in Serbia, which was closely related to Bosnia and Herzegovina geographically and ethnically. Serbia demanded that Austria cede a portion of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Izvolsky was forced to support these claims due to anti-Austrian sentiment in Russia. Austria-Hungary, firmly backed by Germany, threatened to invade Serbia if it persisted in its demands.

In March 1909, Izvolsky notified Germany that Russia accepted the annexation. The crisis was resolved without immediate warfare, but it permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary, Serbia, and Russia, contributing to the outbreak of World War I.

Austria-Hungary's expansionist policy in the Balkans

In 1875, a revolt in Herzegovina escalated into a war of liberation by the Serbs under Ottoman rule, backed by the de facto independent young states of Serbia, Romania, and Greece. Despite their supposed weakness, the Ottomans demonstrated their strength, and it took significant Russian intervention to save the Serbs from defeat. Russia then launched a further military intervention in 1877, aiming to drive out the Ottomans from the Balkans and establish a "greater Bulgarian empire" as a Russian satellite state in the eastern Balkans.

In response to Russian ambitions, Austria-Hungary felt coerced to strengthen its position in the western Balkans, hoping for additional territory and seeking to turn southern Slav nationalism into a pro-Austrian movement. Vienna offered the Ottomans "development aid" in the form of assistance in expanding infrastructure and mapping the western Balkans. While publicly denying aspirations to expand into Bosnian territory, the Austrian government and military leadership prepared for an invasion. They recognised that in the event of a crisis, regions like Dalmatia would be too exposed and difficult to defend, whereas Bosnia and Herzegovina would function as a land bridge.

Austria-Hungary's expansionist policy culminated in the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, which had been under Austrian administration since 1878 but remained nominally under Ottoman control. This unilateral action upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans, provoking outrage from Serbia and pan-Slavic nationalists across Europe. Despite being forced to submit, Russia viewed Austria-Hungary's actions as aggressive and threatening, encouraging pro-Russian, anti-Austrian sentiment in Serbia and other Balkan provinces. This further fuelled Austrian fears of Slavic expansionism in the region, contributing to the complex web of tensions that eventually ignited World War I.

The Treaty of Berlin

The Congress of Berlin was convened by Britain and Austria-Hungary, who opposed the strengthening of Russia's position in the Balkans and the formation of a large Slavic state, Bulgaria. Russia, weakened by the war with Turkey and not supported by Germany, was forced to agree to the congress. The treaty was signed by representatives of all attending nations and consisted of 64 articles, significantly altering the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano.

One of the most significant outcomes of the Treaty of Berlin was the division of Bulgaria along the Balkan mountain range into two parts. The northern part became an autonomous principality, paying tribute to Turkey, while the southern part, known as Eastern Rumelia, remained under Turkish rule with administrative autonomy. Additionally, territories of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania were reduced, and Bosnia and Herzegovina fell into the zone of occupation by Austria-Hungary. Russia retained the mouth of the Danube, while the regions of Ardahan and Kars were ceded to Russia.

The Russo-Turkish War

The Russian-led coalition emerged victorious, pushing the Ottomans back to the gates of Constantinople and leading to Western European great power intervention. As a result, Russia claimed provinces in the Caucasus and annexed the Budjak region, while Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro formally proclaimed independence from the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria, which had been under Ottoman rule for almost five centuries, also emerged as an autonomous state with Russian support.

The war had significant consequences for the Balkans. It marked a shift in the balance of power, with the decline of Ottoman influence and the rise of Serbia as a regional power. Additionally, it reinforced nationalist and irredentist sentiments in the region, setting the stage for further conflicts and contributing to the complex dynamics that would eventually lead to World War I.

However, Austria-Hungary's actions during and after the war had lasting repercussions. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, formerly Ottoman territories, sparked protests from its Balkan neighbours and damaged relations with Serbia, contributing to the tensions that led to the outbreak of World War I. Thus, the Russo-Turkish War and its aftermath played a significant role in shaping the political landscape of the Balkans and set in motion events that would have far-reaching consequences for Europe as a whole.

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