Austria-Hungary's Shrinking: Wwi's Impact

Austria-Hungary's size was greatly affected by World War I. The war began in 1914 when Austria-Hungary invaded Serbia following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers, alongside the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire. The Austro-Hungarian army was divided into two main groups: the main armies of both Austria and Hungary, and the reserve or secondary forces. At the outbreak of the war, Austria-Hungary had approximately 3 million soldiers, but by the end of the war, 7.8 million had served in uniform.

Austria-Hungary was more urbanized than its main opponents in the war, including the Russian Empire, Serbia, and Romania. However, the Austro-Hungarian army was one of the least developed and prepared in Europe. It struggled to adequately supply and prepare its forces and was much further behind its European rivals in terms of military equipment, such as artillery. The multi-ethnic nature of the army also created division within the ranks and made it difficult for commanders to organize troops.

Austria-Hungary participated in some of the most significant battles of the war, including the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive, the Battles of the Isonzo, and the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. The Serbian Campaign, which began when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in July 1914, was the first main military activity of the Austro-Hungarian forces in the war. The campaign ended in November 1915, with the Central Powers defeating and occupying Serbia. Another important site of conflict for Austria-Hungary was the Eastern Front, where it waged war against Russia. The Battle of Galicia, which took place during the early weeks of the war, was a significant battle on the Eastern Front and resulted in heavy losses for both sides.

By the end of the war, Austria-Hungary had suffered terrible losses. Approximately 900,000 Austro-Hungarian soldiers died as a result of military action, and the empire began to fall apart. On October 31, 1918, the Hungarian Parliament proclaimed its withdrawal from the union, officially ending the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Austria-Hungary accepted its defeat following the Battle of Vittorio Veneto and signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti on November 3, 1918, ending the conflict with Italy on the Italian Front.

Austria-Hungary's size and population in 1914

In 1914, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was one of the great powers of Europe, with an area of 676,443 km2 and a population of 52 million. The Kingdom of Hungary, which comprised 42% of the population of Austria-Hungary, had an area of 325,400 km2 and a population of 21 million. The Empire was geographically the second-largest country in Europe and the third-most populous (after Russia and the German Empire).

The Empire was a multi-national constitutional monarchy consisting of two sovereign states with a single monarch who was titled both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. The Empire was formed in 1867 and was dissolved in 1918 shortly after Hungary terminated the union with Austria.

The Empire's political organisation was complex and unusual. This was because of its origins as two separate kingdoms (it was often called the Dual Monarchy). The Emperor was first crowned as king of both Austria and Hungary. Each monarchy continued to exist with a degree of autonomy, with their own parliament, prime ministers, cabinet and domestic self-government. The two countries conducted unified diplomatic and defence policies.

The Empire was ruled by Emperor Franz Joseph at the start of World War I. The Austro-Hungarian army was divided into three: the so-called "common" army and "common" navy, where the language was German; the Landwehr of the Austrian army; and the Royal Hungarian "honvédség", where the language was Hungarian and Croatian. The Empire conscripted 7.8 million soldiers during World War I.

The Empire was more urbanised (25%) than its main direct opponents in the First World War, like the Russian Empire (13.4%), Serbia (13.2%) and Romania (18.8%). It also had a more industrialised economy and higher GDP per capita than the Kingdom of Italy, which was economically the most developed opponent of the Empire.

The empire's military spending and preparedness

Austria-Hungary's military spending had not even doubled since the 1878 Congress of Berlin, while its rivals' spending had increased significantly. Despite this, the empire was a major European power at the outbreak of World War I, with an area of 676,443 km2 and a population of 52 million.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire's military was divided into two main groups: the main armies of both Austria and Hungary, and their reserve forces. The empire's military was also multi-ethnic, with the "common" army and navy using German as their language, and the Hungarian "honvédség" using Hungarian and Croatian. This created division within the ranks and made it difficult for commanders to organise troops effectively.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire conscripted 7.8 million soldiers during World War I, with more than 3.8 million of these soldiers coming from the Kingdom of Hungary. Despite this large number, the empire struggled to adequately supply and prepare its military forces, and its army was one of the least developed and prepared in Europe. It had one of the smallest air forces on the continent and lacked sufficient artillery. The correct supply of ammunition was not solved even by the end of the war. The empire's military leaders also struggled to unify the multi-ethnic units under their command.

Despite these issues, the Austro-Hungarian military forces remained largely unified throughout the war and were capable in a defensive role. They participated in some of the most significant battles of the war, including the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive, the Battles of the Isonzo, and the Battle of Vittorio Veneto.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire's military spending and preparedness were inadequate, and this contributed to their struggles during World War I. The empire lacked the industrial base and equipment necessary for a conflict of this scale, and its multi-ethnic nature created divisions within the ranks that made effective organisation difficult.

The impact of the war on the home front

The impact of World War I on the home front in Austria-Hungary was profound and far-reaching. The war had a devastating effect on the economy, food supply, and social fabric of the country, ultimately leading to its dissolution in 1918. Here are some key aspects of how the war affected the home front in Austria-Hungary:

Economic Crisis and Food Shortages:

• The war disrupted the economy, with industries struggling to meet the demands of military production. Inflation soared, eroding the savings of the middle class.
• Agriculture, which was vital to the economy, suffered due to the mobilisation of millions of men, leading to food shortages and rising prices.
• The government implemented food rationing, with meatless days and restrictions on sugar consumption.
• People faced long queues and overnight waits to obtain rationed food, and women and children often had to forage for food in the countryside.

Social and Political Unrest:

• The war exacerbated existing ethnic and national tensions within the multi-ethnic empire, with nationalist movements gaining momentum and demanding independence.
• Censorship and propaganda were widespread, with a culture of rumours replacing traditional news sources.
• There was a rise in strikes and industrial action, particularly in 1917-1918, as workers demanded better conditions and political reforms.
• The war also impacted gender roles, with women taking on new roles in factories and public sectors due to male mobilisation.

Government and Leadership Changes:

• The war brought about a harsh military dictatorship, but in 1917, Emperor Francis Joseph I died, and his grandnephew, Charles I, ascended the throne. Charles sought to ameliorate social and nationalist conflicts and made concessions to various nationalist groups.
• However, these efforts were ultimately unsuccessful, as the empire continued to face military defeats, food shortages, and political instability.
• The Hungarian Parliament proclaimed its withdrawal from the union in October 1918, effectively ending the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Impact on Daily Life:

• The war disrupted daily life, with food shortages, inflation, and rationing affecting people's livelihoods.
• Propaganda was pervasive, with the government using it to recruit soldiers, justify rationing, and demonise the enemy.
• The war also led to the mobilisation of women into the workforce, changing gender dynamics and social norms.
• The war's prolonged nature and heavy casualties took a toll on morale, and people on the home front demanded political and social reforms to recognise their sacrifices.

The role of Emperor Franz Joseph I

Emperor Franz Joseph I was 84 years old when World War I began. He was the ruler of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was a dual monarchy formed by a merger of two older states in 1867. The empire was a relatively young nation-state, occupying much of central Europe, and was ruled by ambitious militarists and industrialists keen on expansion, particularly in the Balkans.

Franz Joseph was the head of state and government, and his power was absolute in theory, though he ruled in the manner of a constitutional monarch, relying on the advice of his ministers. He was naturally conservative and often at odds with his nephew and heir to the throne, Franz Ferdinand, due to their differing political ideologies. Franz Joseph disliked Ferdinand's liberal and progressive ideas and considered him to be too easily influenced.

Franz Joseph's role in World War I began with the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, in June 1914. The emperor regarded this as an attack on the honour of the dynasty and, pressured by military advisers, government ministers, and his German ally, he unleashed the war by declaring war on Serbia, whom he believed had masterminded the assassination. This declaration of war set off a chain reaction, with one state declaring war on another, ultimately resulting in the First World War.

Franz Joseph's role in the war was limited to signing the declaration of war on Russia in August 1914. He left the conduct of the war strictly to his military officials. By 1916, he believed victory was impossible and that the break-up of his empire was likely. He died in November 1916, at the age of 86, amid the turmoil of the First World War.

The Treaty of Trianon

The Kingdom of Hungary, as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, had been involved in the First World War since August 1914. After its allies, Bulgaria and Turkey, signed armistices with the Entente, the political elite in Budapest opted to end the war as well. On the 31st of October, 1918, the Budapest government declared independence from Austria and immediately began peace talks with the Allies. Despite the end of hostilities, the Entente Allies, Hungary's neighbours, put Hungary under an economic blockade. They deprived Hungary of importing food, fuel, and other important goods.

In an attempt to alleviate the economic crisis, succeeding Hungarian governments pleaded with the Entente to lift the blockade and restore regional trade. The first peace talks led to an armistice in Belgrade on the 13th of November, 1918. Hungary undertook to demobilise its army and granted the Allies the right to occupy the south and east of Hungary until a peace treaty was signed. In December 1918, Budapest allowed Czechoslovak troops to occupy northern Hungary as well. In exchange, Budapest hoped to reopen foreign trade and supply coal.

In April 1919, Romania and Czechoslovakia moved their armies further into Hungary, provoking a renewal of hostilities. In June 1919, the Entente powers ordered Budapest, Prague, and Bucharest to cease fighting and accept new demarcation lines that would be guaranteed as the future borders of Hungary. Despite temporary military successes against the Czechs, Budapest accepted the offer and withdrew its army. Bucharest, however, ignored the Entente order and continued its offensive. In early August 1919, the Romanian army entered Budapest, and a new pro-Romanian government was installed. This marked the end of hostilities between the Hungarians and the Romanians.

The Entente pressed the Romanians to leave Budapest in November 1919 and orchestrated the formation of a new Hungarian coalition government. The new cabinet was invited to attend the Paris Peace Conference. In January 1920, it received the Allied proposal for a peace treaty. The treaty stipulated the legalization of the demarcation lines of the 13th of June, 1919, as the new borders and guaranteed the end of the blockade and the restoration of free trade between the former Habsburg lands and the import of coal into Hungary. The government in Budapest and the Hungarian Parliament accepted the peace terms. While it welcomed the restoration of peace and trade, it still formally protested against the cession of their former territories without plebiscites. The Peace Treaty was signed on the 4th of June, 1920, ratified by Hungary on the 16th of November, 1920, and came into force on the 26th of July, 1921.

The post-1920 Hungary became a landlocked state that included 93,073 square kilometres, 28% of the 325,411 square kilometres that had constituted the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary. The kingdom had a population of 7.6 million, 36% compared to the pre-war kingdom's population of 20.9 million. Though the areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries had a majority of non-Hungarians, 3.3 million Hungarians, 31% of the Hungarians, then became minorities. The treaty limited Hungary's army to 35,000 officers and men, and the Austro-Hungarian Navy ceased to exist. These decisions and their consequences have been the cause of deep resentment in Hungary ever since.

Frequently asked questions