Nationalism's Divisive Impact On The Austrian Empire

how was nationalism a divisive force in the austrian empire

The Austrian Empire was a diverse state, with many different ethnic groups and languages. The rise of nationalism in the 19th century gave these groups the power and will to demand their own independent countries, which was incompatible with the idea of a unified Austrian-Hungarian state. German nationalism was a particularly strong force, with German-speaking Austrians seeking close ties with Germany and the incorporation of Austria into a Greater Germany. This caused conflict with other ethnic groups within the Empire, such as the Czechs, Italians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and Poles, who demanded cultural and political equality. The struggle between these groups defined the social and political landscape of the Empire, ultimately leading to its dissolution after World War I.

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German nationalism in Austria

Over the course of Austrian history, several political parties and groups have expressed pan-German nationalist sentiment. National liberal and pan-Germanist parties have traditionally been ranked behind Catholic conservatives and socialists in Austrian politics. However, the Freedom Party of Austria, a far-right political party with representation in parliament, has pan-Germanist roots.

During the 19th century, the German National Movement sought to create a Greater Germany and entrench German ethnic identity through the implementation of anti-Semitic and anti-clerical policies. This movement particularly gained traction among the well-educated intelligentsia, including professors, grammar school teachers, and students.

After the Austrian defeat in the Battle of Königgrätz in 1866, German Austrians felt excluded from the German nation-state that was unified under Prussian stewardship in 1871. This sentiment was further exacerbated by the Compromise of 1867, which granted renewed sovereignty to the Kingdom of Hungary, leading to increasing conflict between the many ethnic groups of the Empire and German-speakers.

Following World War I, many Austrians desired unification with Germany, and this sentiment was reflected in plebiscites held in Tyrol and Salzburg, which yielded majorities in favour of unification. However, these votes were marred by electoral fraud and voter manipulation. Ultimately, the victors of World War I forbade any attempt by German Austria to unify with Germany in the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.

During the First Austrian Republic, pan-Germanists were represented by the Greater German People's Party and the agrarian Landbund, but they soon lost support to the Christian Social Party and the Social Democratic Party, both of which accepted that unification with Germany was forbidden.

After World War II, German nationalism and the idea of unification with Germany became unpopular due to their association with Nazism. Austrians began to reject their German identity and embraced a broader Austrian identity, emphasising the non-Germanic heritage of Austrian culture.

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Austrian opposition to unification with Prussia

Austrian nationalism was largely rooted in Catholicism, which formed the core of Austrian national identity. Given that Prussia had a predominantly Protestant religious identity, Austrians saw unification with Prussia as a potential threat to their Catholic identity. This was one of the main reasons for Austrian opposition to unification with Prussia.

In the 1930s, the Fatherland Front government of Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg rejected the idea of a union with a Protestant-dominated Germany. They claimed that any unification of Austria with Germany would require a federal German state where Austria and Austrians were guaranteed a privileged status.

In the 19th century, the idea of uniting all ethnic Germans into one state was challenged by the rise of Austrian nationalism within the Christian Social Party. This movement identified Austrians based on their predominantly Catholic religious identity, in contrast to the predominantly Protestant identity of the Prussians. More than 90% of interbellum Austrians identified as Catholic.

Otto von Bismarck, the Minister President of Prussia, played a significant role in the unification of Germany. He formed alliances with other major powers, including Russia, France, and Italy, to isolate Austria and strengthen Prussia's position. Bismarck's diplomatic maneuvers and Prussia's military superiority ultimately led to the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, which resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states.

The Austro-Prussian War further solidified Austrian opposition to unification. The war erupted due to a dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig and Holstein, which they had jointly conquered from Denmark. Despite Austria's attempts to use the German Bund to pressure Prussia, Bismarck declared the Treaty of Gastein nullified and invaded Holstein. Prussia accused Austria of aggression and formed alliances with Italy and other German states, ultimately defeating the Austrian army.

The defeat in the Austro-Prussian War led to the Peace of Prague, which sealed the dissolution of the German Confederation. Prussia annexed several territories, including Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, and Frankfurt, while excluding Austria from German affairs. This marked the formation of the North German Confederation, dominated by Prussia, and solidified the divide between Austrians and Prussians.

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The Austrian Empire's ethnic diversity

The Austrian Empire was ethnically diverse, comprising many nationalities and language groups. The largest language group was German speakers, who made up 23.4% of the total population, followed by Hungarian, Czech, Polish, and Serbo-Croatian speakers, who made up around 12-20% each. Smaller language groups included Ukrainian, Romanian, Slovakian, Slovenian, and Italian speakers. This diversity presented challenges in terms of national unity and led to competing national demands that were often incompatible with the idea of a unified Austria-Hungary.

The German-speaking population of the Empire enjoyed societal privileges dating back to the reign of Empress Maria Theresa and her son, Joseph II. German was considered the lingua franca, and the elite consisted primarily of German speakers. However, the rise of ethnic nationalism in the 19th century led to tensions between the German-speaking population and other ethnic groups, who demanded political, economic, and cultural equality.

The struggle between the various ethnic groups defined the social and political landscape of the Empire from the 1870s until its dissolution after World War I. German nationalists sought the creation of a Greater Germany and the implementation of anti-Semitic and anti-clerical policies to entrench their ethnic identity. Other ethnic groups, such as the Serbs, Czechs, Italians, Croats, Slovenes, and Poles, sought to protect their cultural and political rights.

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The German National Movement

The movement emerged in the context of rising ethnic nationalism during the 19th century in the territories of the multi-ethnic Austrian Empire. The German-speaking population enjoyed societal privileges dating back to the reign of Empress Maria Theresa and her son, Joseph II. German was considered the lingua franca of the Empire, and the elite consisted primarily of German speakers.

The revolutions of 1848 marked the beginning of the movement, as various ethnic groups under imperial rule, including Serbs, Czechs, Italians, Croats, Slovenes, and Poles, demanded political, economic, and cultural equality. The struggle between these ethnic groups and German speakers defined the social and political landscape of the Empire from the 1870s until its dissolution after World War I.

The German Austrians felt excluded from the German nation-state after the unification of "Lesser Germany" under Prussia in 1871. Conflict between Germans and Czechs intensified in 1879 when the German-Liberal Party, considered the main representative of the German-speaking middle class, was not included in the government of Cisleithania. The German National Movement accused the Party of failing to fight for the rights of German speakers.

In 1880, the "German School League" was formed to protect German-language schools in areas where German speakers were a minority. The following year, a consortium of German nationalist groups published the Linz Program, demanding the recognition of German predominance and the complete Germanisation of the Empire. This manifesto was signed by the radical German nationalist Georg von Schönerer, Vienna's populist mayor Karl Lueger, and the Jewish social democrat Victor Adler. However, the signatories split ideologically when Schönerer revised the manifesto to include an "Aryan paragraph" in 1885.

Schönerer went on to found the "German-National Association" and the "Pan-German Society," demanding the annexation of all German-speaking territories of Austria-Hungary to the Prussian-led German Empire. His racist German nationalism was particularly popular among intellectuals, professors, teachers, and students. Despite efforts by school administrations to encourage civic pride and a "cult of personality" around the Emperor, these attempts to counteract nationalist sentiments failed.

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The Austrian Empire's language inequality

The Austrian Empire, formed in 1804, was a diverse and heterogeneous entity comprising various political entities, including kingdoms, archduchies, duchies, and earldoms. This diversity extended to its people, with at least 17 nations and minority groups represented. The most commonly spoken languages were the Slavonic languages, with German being the most common single language, at 25.2%. The other most common languages were Czech, Hungarian, and Romanian.

The issue of language in the Austrian Empire was a highly sensitive and divisive topic, especially in the realm of education and administration. The Empire's constitution, specifically Article 19 of the December Constitution of 1867, guaranteed equal treatment of all races in the field of schooling, stating that "each race may receive the necessary instruction in its own language, without being obliged to learn a second language." However, in practice, complete equality among languages was never achieved.

In the Austrian half of the Empire, German was often the preferred language of instruction, even in non-German-speaking territories. This was done to ensure a unitary state and establish German as the standard language of communication and scholarship. This policy was opposed by other ethnic groups within the Empire, who began to protest against the primacy of German. As a result, the federalist approach in school policies led to a nationalisation of the school system, with the language of instruction determined by the majority of the pupils. This autonomy in language choice was often a contentious issue, especially in mixed-language areas, leading to estrangement between different language groups.

The situation was different in the Hungarian half of the Empire, where educational policies were dominated by a policy of Magyarisation. Teachers in non-Hungarian minority schools were required to have knowledge of Hungarian, and it was compulsory to teach Hungarian to children in non-Hungarian kindergartens and primary schools. At the middle and higher school levels, only schools with Hungarian as the primary language of instruction received state funding, creating a barrier for non-Hungarian speakers.

The language of administration was also a highly disputed political issue within the Empire. In the Bohemian Lands, for example, disputes arose between the German and Czech language groups, with the Czech majority population demanding the use of Czech in official dealings with the authorities. While the Taaffe government successfully recognised Czech as a customary language alongside German, tensions remained high, and the German minority often resisted learning the second language. Similar controversies occurred in other regions, such as Galicia, where the Ruthenian national movement resisted the imposition of the Latin alphabet for their language.

Frequently asked questions

The Austrian Empire was a multi-ethnic state, and nationalism caused division as each ethnic group wanted independence and their own country.

The German National Movement (German: Deutschnationale Bewegung) was a 19th-century movement that sought to create a Greater Germany and entrench German ethnic identity within the Austrian Empire.

German nationalism arose in the 19th century as a movement among the German-speaking population of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It favoured close ties with Germany and the possibility of incorporating Austria into a Greater Germany.

German nationalism has been a significant force in Austrian politics, with several political parties and groups expressing pan-German nationalist sentiment. National liberal and pan-Germanist parties have traditionally been ranked behind Catholic conservatives and socialists in Austrian politics.

The struggle between the many ethnic groups within the Empire, including Germans, Serbs, Czechs, Italians, Croats, Slovenes, and Poles, dominated political affairs and led to the destabilization of the Monarchy. The intensity of the conflicts over national rights steadily eroded belief in the viability of a multinational state.

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