Tiwanaku, Bolivia: An Ancient Site's Age And History

Bolivia is a landlocked country in South America with a rich history. One of the largest archaeological sites in South America is located in western Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca. The site, known as Tiwanaku, is a Pre-Columbian ruin that was once inhabited by 10,000 to 20,000 people in AD 800. The site was first recorded in written history in 1549 by Spanish conquistador Pedro Cieza de León. The dating of the site has been refined over the last century, with the consensus that the site is no older than 200 or 300 BC. Tiwanaku began its steady growth in the early centuries of the first millennium AD and is thought to have collapsed around 1000 AD.

Tiwanaku's location and founding

The Tiwanaku Polity, also known as Tiahuanaco or Tiahuanacu in Spanish, was a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca, about 70 kilometres from La Paz. It was the capital of the Tiwanaku Empire, situated in the Titicaca basin, and founded around 110 AD during the Late Formative Period. The first examples of monumental architecture in Tiwanaku date to around 200 CE, but it was from 375 CE that the city became grander in its architecture and scope.

Tiwanaku was a multicultural network of powerful lineages that brought people together to build large monuments. The city was located at an altitude of roughly 3,800 metres (12,500 feet) above sea level, making it the highest state capital of the ancient world. The layout of the city centre was constructed on an east-west axis, built in a grid design, and the whole was surrounded by a moat (perhaps only symbolic) on three sides, which linked with Lake Titicaca on the fourth side. Outside of the moat were residential buildings arranged in compounds and built using mud bricks. Irrigation was also provided for crops via canals, aqueducts and dikes, which brought water from the lake.

Tiwanaku's location between the lake and dry highlands provided key resources such as fish, wild birds, plants, and herding grounds for camelids, particularly llamas. The city's economy was based on exploiting the resources of Lake Titicaca, herding llamas and alpacas, and organised farming in raised field systems. The people of Tiwanaku consumed llama meat, potatoes, quinoa, beans, and maize.

Tiwanaku's growth and influence

The Tiwanaku Polity, also known as Tiahuanaco or Tiahuanacu, was a Pre-Columbian civilisation in western Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca. The site was first recorded in 1549 by Spanish conquistador Pedro Cieza de León. It is believed that the name Tiwanaku was once taypiqala, which in Aymara means "stone in the centre", suggesting it was considered the centre of the world.

Tiwanaku was founded around 110 AD during the Late Formative Period, but it was from 375 CE that the city's architecture and scope expanded. New structures included large religious buildings, gateways and sculptures. The layout of the city centre was constructed on an east-west axis, built in a grid design, and the whole was surrounded by a moat on three sides, which linked with Lake Titicaca on the fourth side. The focal point of the sacred precinct was the Akapana Temple, an artificial hill over 15 metres high, shaped into seven tiers.

Tiwanaku's influence extended into present-day Peru and Chile and lasted from around 600 to 1000 AD. Its capital was the monumental city of Tiwanaku, located at the centre of the polity's core area in the southern Lake Titicaca Basin. This area has clear evidence for large-scale agricultural production on raised fields that probably supported the urban population of the capital.

Tiwanaku was a multi-cultural network that brought people together to build large monuments. These work feasts integrated people in powerful ceremonies, attracting people from hundreds of kilometres away. Tiwanaku grew into the Andes' most important pilgrimage destination and one of the continent's largest Pre-Columbian cities, reaching a maximum population of 10,000 to 20,000 around AD 800.

Tiwanaku's influence was most clearly documented by the presence of its decorated ceramics, which expanded into the Yungas and influenced many other cultures in Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argentina and Chile. Some statues at Tiwanaku were taken from other regions, where the stones were placed in a subordinate position to the Gods of the Tiwanaku.

The population grew rapidly between 600 and 800, and the site became an important regional power in the southern Andes. The growth of the city was due to its complex agropastoral economy, supported by trade. As the population grew, occupational niches developed, and people began to specialise in certain skills. There was an increase in artisans, who worked in pottery, jewellery, and textiles.

Tiwanaku's decline and abandonment

The decline and abandonment of Tiwanaku, a powerful pre-Columbian civilisation in western Bolivia, is a subject of debate among scholars. The city reached its peak between AD 500 and AD 1000, with a population of at least 10,000 people. However, around AD 1000, Tiwanaku fell into decline and was eventually abandoned. This collapse occurred at the same time as the fall of the Wari culture in Peru, leading to speculation that environmental changes in the Andes played a role in the downfall of both civilisations.

One theory suggests that environmental changes, such as prolonged drought or seismic activity, disrupted Tiwanaku's agricultural system, leading to social unrest and, ultimately, the city's abandonment. Evidence from the Quelccaya ice cap in southern Peru and sediment cores from Lake Titicaca indicates a significant decrease in mean precipitation levels during the post-AD 1000 era, supporting the idea that drought played a role in Tiwanaku's decline. This drought led to the sequential collapse of distinct agricultural systems, with irrigation-based agriculture in lower-altitude colonies failing first, followed by groundwater-dependent raised-field systems in the Andean altiplano.

Another theory posits that internal conflict or invasion by outside forces contributed to Tiwanaku's downfall. Some areas of the city show signs of intentional destruction, with monolithic gates tipped over and broken, and food storage jars smashed. Additionally, the absence of defensive architecture, changes in weapon technology, or evidence of a ruling dynasty suggests that Tiwanaku may have been vulnerable to external forces.

The decline and abandonment of Tiwanaku remain a mystery, with the exact sequence of events leading to its downfall still a matter of debate among scholars. However, it is clear that the city's grandeur and sophistication could not prevent its sudden and dramatic decline.

Tiwanaku's legacy

Tiwanaku, also known as Tiahuanaco or Tiwanacu, is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca. It was the capital of the Tiwanaku Polity, or Empire, which was one of the most significant Andean civilisations.

Tiwanaku is one of the largest sites in South America, and its legacy is still being uncovered today. The site covers around 4 square kilometres and includes decorated ceramics, monumental structures, and megalithic blocks. It is believed that around 10,000 to 20,000 people inhabited the site in AD 800.

Tiwanaku is known for its impressive architecture and urban planning. The city was laid out on an east-west axis, with a grid design, and was surrounded by a moat on three sides, connecting to Lake Titicaca on the fourth side. The precision of the stone blocks used in construction suggests the use of advanced tools and measurement systems. The large stones used in the monuments were transported without the wheel, and their flat carving and right angles are almost impossible to achieve without modern machinery. The placement of the monuments also appears to be intentional, with alignments to the sunrise and midday sun.

The focal point of the sacred precinct was the Akapana Temple, an artificial hill with a flat top used as a ceremonial court. Other notable structures include the Kalasasaya, a rectangular sacred structure with a sunken court; the Semi-Subterranean Temple, with a unique north-south axis; and the Pumapunku, another temple mound with a T-shaped sunken court.

The Gateway of the Sun, a monolithic structure with intricate carvings, is another famous feature of Tiwanaku. It is adorned with a central deity figure, possibly representing the Andean creator god Viracocha, surrounded by 48 winged figures.

Tiwanaku was also known for its advanced agricultural techniques, such as the "flooded-raised field" system, which provided impressive crop yields and protected against frost. This system, along with their trade networks and shamanistic art, contributed to the influence and soft power of the Tiwanaku culture, which extended into present-day Peru, Chile, and Argentina.

The legacy of Tiwanaku can also be seen in its influence on later civilisations, such as the Inca. The Inca civilisation adopted similar architectural styles, and even imported stonemasons from the Lake Titicaca region in homage to the skilled builders of Tiwanaku.

The disappearance of the Tiwanaku civilisation around the 11th century remains a mystery. However, theories suggest that a severe drought or internal social dynamics may have contributed to its collapse. Despite the unknowns, Tiwanaku remains one of the greatest civilisations of South America, with its impressive constructions and advanced knowledge in various fields.

Tiwanaku's archaeological significance

Tiwanaku is an ancient archaeological site in western Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca. It is one of the largest sites in South America, covering an area of about 4 square kilometres. The site is known for its impressive structures, including the Akapana, a terraced platform mound, and the Pumapunku, a man-made platform featuring megalithic blocks.

Tiwanaku is believed to have been inhabited by a large population, with estimates ranging from 10,000 to 20,000 people during its peak in AD 800. The growth of the city can be attributed to its complex agropastoral economy, supported by trade. The people of Tiwanaku had a strong relationship with the Wari culture, sharing similar iconography known as the "Southern Andean Iconographic Series".

The archaeological significance of Tiwanaku lies in its intricate architecture, advanced engineering, and cultural artefacts. The site features monumental structures built with large stone blocks, weighing up to 100 tons, that were precisely cut and fitted together without the use of mortar. The precision and craftsmanship exhibited in the construction of these structures are remarkable, especially considering the lack of advanced tools and technology during that period.

Tiwanaku is also known for its religious and ceremonial significance. The Gateway of the Sun, a monolithic structure adorned with carvings, is believed to have been a sacred site for the Tiwanaku people. The site has been associated with various beliefs and rituals, including human sacrifice, and has been linked to the origins of the Inca civilisation.

The discovery of artefacts and sacrificial remains in Lake Titicaca provides valuable insights into the religious practices and rituals of the Tiwanaku people. These rituals, such as pilgrimages and sacrifices, played a significant role in the development of the Tiwanaku state and its influence on later civilisations like the Inca.

The study of Tiwanaku has enhanced our understanding of pre-Columbian civilisations in the Andes region and their impact on subsequent cultures. However, much of Tiwanaku's history and culture remain a mystery, with ongoing archaeological research aiming to uncover more about this ancient society.

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