Bolivia's History: Wars And Conflicts

Bolivia has been involved in numerous wars since its independence from Spain in 1825. The country has a history of territorial conflicts with its neighbours, particularly Chile and Paraguay, and has also experienced internal strife, including civil wars and revolutions. Bolivia's military engagements have had significant impacts on its economy and territorial boundaries, including the loss of its coastal access to the Pacific Ocean. The country has also been subject to foreign interventions and has participated in broader regional conflicts, such as the Spanish-American wars of independence.

The Chaco War (1932-1935)

The Chaco War, which took place between 1932 and 1935, was a conflict between Bolivia and Paraguay over control of the northern part of the Gran Chaco region. This area, covering around 600,000 square kilometres, was believed to be rich in oil and would provide access to the Atlantic Ocean via the Paraguay River. The dispute over this territory dated back to the 1880s, with both sides building a double line of forts across the Chaco.

The first confrontation occurred in 1885 when Bolivia founded Puerto Pacheco, a port on the Upper Paraguay River, which Paraguay forcibly evicted them from in 1888. There were further clashes in 1927 and 1928, with both sides capturing and attacking each other's forts and outposts. On 5 December 1928, a Paraguayan cavalry unit overran Fortin Vanguardia, an advanced Bolivian outpost. In retaliation, Bolivia launched an airstrike on Bahía Negra on 15 December. This escalation of violence led to a breakdown in diplomatic talks and the dispute became increasingly violent.

In June 1932, a Bolivian patrol captured a Paraguayan fort, triggering a military escalation that led to full-scale war. Bolivia, with its lucrative mining income and larger, better-equipped army, initially seemed to have overwhelming advantages. However, a series of factors, including poor communications and difficulties in shipping arms and supplies, turned the tide against them. Paraguay, on the other hand, had the advantage of fighting in lowland swamps and jungles, an environment in which many Bolivian soldiers, mostly conscripts from the highland Andes, struggled.

The war saw heavy fighting and significant losses on both sides. Notable battles include the siege of Fortín Boquerón, which fell to Paraguayan forces in September 1932, and the battle for Fortín Nanawa, which resulted in a major defeat for Bolivia and heavy casualties. In November 1934, two Bolivian divisions were surrounded and neutralised at El Carmen, forcing the Bolivians to abandon Ballivián and form a new defensive line at Villa Montes. Despite some successful Bolivian counterattacks, Paraguayan forces continued to advance and launched a final assault on Villa Montes in February 1935.

A truce was finally arranged on 12 June 1935, bringing an end to the bloodiest interstate military conflict fought in South America in the 20th century. A peace treaty, signed in Buenos Aires in July 1938, awarded Paraguay sovereignty over most of the disputed territory, with Bolivia receiving the remaining one-third, including access to the Paraguay River and a port.

Bolivian War of Independence (1809-1825)

The Bolivian War of Independence, which took place between 1809 and 1825, was a prolonged conflict that marked a pivotal moment in the country's history, ending centuries of Spanish colonial rule. The war's origins can be traced back to growing unrest in the Spanish colonies, influenced by the Napoleonic rule of Spain that began in 1808. Chuquisaca (now known as Sucre) and La Paz were among the first cities to rebel, inspired by the earlier proto-revolution led by Túpac Amaru II.

During this period, the region now known as Bolivia was referred to as Upper Peru or Charcas and was under the authority of the Viceroyalty of Peru. The war began with the establishment of government juntas in Chuquisaca and La Paz following the Chuquisaca Revolution and La Paz Revolution. These juntas were short-lived, as the cities fell back under Spanish control. However, the conflict escalated into a guerrilla war, known as the War of the Republiquetas, preventing the royalists from consolidating their power.

The struggle for independence in Upper Peru was characterised by complex power dynamics. Between 1808 and 1810, a local power struggle emerged between those who supported the Junta Central in Spain and those who refused to recognise its authority due to their royalist philosophies. This conflict extended beyond the initial rebellions in Chuquisaca and La Paz, with the involvement of various factions, including liberals, supporters of Princess Carlota of Portugal, and radical criollos who sought independence.

From 1810 to 1817, six guerrilla armies formed in the backcountry of Charcas, controlling regions known as "republiquetas" or "little republics". These armies were led by caudillos, military leaders who wielded influence through their personalities and military prowess. While these republiquetas lacked influence over surrounding areas, they successfully resisted interference from royalist forces for over a decade. The idea of independence was further fuelled by the American War of Independence, which inspired people to question colonial occupation.

The war in Bolivia was closely tied to the broader Latin American Wars of Independence. Simón Bolívar, a Venezuelan revolutionary, played a pivotal role in leading independence movements across South America. After liberating Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador, Bolívar set his sights on Upper Peru. In 1823, his forces crossed Bolivia, and on December 9, 1824, they achieved a decisive victory over the royalist army in the Battle of Ayacucho.

Despite this victory, the war in Upper Peru continued due to the resistance of General Pedro Antonio de Olañeta, a conservative general who refused to recognise the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and broke away from the Viceroyalty of Peru. Olañeta posed a significant challenge, even attempting to surrender Upper Peru to Brazil to maintain Spanish control. However, on April 1, 1825, Olañeta was killed by his own men in the Battle of Tumusla, marking the end of Spanish rule in the region.

On August 6, 1825, a constitutional congress assembled and declared Bolivia's independence, naming the country after Simón Bolívar. This declaration brought an end to the Bolivian War of Independence, solidifying the country's freedom from colonial rule.

War of the Pacific (1879-1883/1884)

The War of the Pacific, also known as the Saltpeter War in reference to its original cause, was fought between Chile and the joint forces of Bolivia and Peru from 1879 to 1883 (or 1884, according to some sources). The war was sparked by a dispute between Chile and Bolivia over control of a part of the Atacama Desert, which lies between the 23rd and 26th parallels on the Pacific coast of South America. This region was rich in valuable mineral resources, particularly sodium nitrate.

Bolivia and Chile had previously negotiated treaties regarding the taxation of mineral exports from this region, but tensions rose when Bolivia attempted to increase taxes on Chilean companies operating in the area. When the Bolivian government threatened to confiscate the property of the Antofagasta Nitrate & Railway Company, Chile responded by sending a warship to the area and occupying the port city of Antofagasta in February 1879. Bolivia then declared war and invoked its secret defensive alliance with Peru. Chile subsequently declared war on both Bolivia and Peru in April 1879.

The conflict resulted in significant territorial gains for Chile, which annexed the Peruvian province of Tarapacá and the Bolivian province of Litoral, turning Bolivia into a landlocked country. Chile's national treasury grew significantly due to taxes from these newly acquired lands, and the country also gained control of lucrative natural resources, including nitrates, saltpeter, and copper.

The war was marked by naval battles and amphibious assaults, with Chile gaining control of the sea and blockading Allied ports. The Battle of Topáter in March 1879 was the first battle of the war, followed by naval engagements at Chipana, Iquique, and Angamos. The Battle of Angamos in October 1879 proved decisive, as Chile captured the Peruvian ironclad Huáscar and gained naval supremacy.

On land, the Chilean Army invaded Peru and Bolivia, with battles taking place at Pisagua, San Francisco, Tarapacá, and Tacna. The Battle of Tacna in May 1880 was a significant Chilean victory, after which Bolivia withdrew from the war. Chilean forces occupied the Peruvian capital of Lima in January 1881 and faced resistance from Peruvian forces for several more years, with the war concluding in 1883 or 1884.

The War of the Pacific had lasting impacts on the region. Bolivia lost its access to the sea, which remains a sensitive issue, and both Bolivia and Peru suffered territorial losses and economic consequences. Chile gained valuable resources and territory, but also faced challenges in the following decades, including an economic downturn due to the decline of the nitrate industry.

Che Guevara's guerrilla warfare (1966-1970)

Che Guevara, born into a middle-class Argentine family in 1928, became one of the most glorified fighters of the twentieth century. Guevara, an anti-imperialist, travelled extensively throughout Latin America, witnessing first-hand the poverty and misery of the region's masses in the early 1950s. He received a medical degree in Argentina in March 1953 but soon resumed his travels across the continent.

Guevara's manual, 'Guerrilla Warfare', introduced the foco theory of revolutions and is considered one of the classic dissertations on guerrilla warfare. In 1966, Guevara attempted to implement his foco theory in Bolivia, but his campaign lasted barely eleven months and ended in complete failure, resulting in his death. Guevara's small band of insurgents achieved few military victories and failed to gain popular support among Bolivia's citizens. The campaign was characterised by inadequate planning, amateurish execution, and violations of guerrilla warfare principles, including those promoted by Guevara himself.

Guevara's guerrilla warfare strategy involved engaging a stronger enemy without direct confrontation, utilising hit-and-run tactics, and exploiting the enemy's vulnerabilities. He emphasised the importance of favourable terrain, safe base areas, and support from the local population. Guevara's theories were influenced by other practitioners of guerrilla warfare, such as Karl von Clausewitz and Mao Tse-Tung, but he adapted these concepts to suit the specific conditions of Latin America and his goal of socialist revolution.

Despite Guevara's reputation as a revolutionary leader, his Bolivian insurgency was relatively insignificant compared to the accomplishments of other revolutionary leaders such as Fidel Castro and Ho Chi Minh. However, his ideas on guerrilla warfare continue to be studied and analysed, offering insights into revolutionary warfare and its application in various contexts.

Bolivian Civil War (1898-1899)

The Bolivian Civil War, also known as the Federal War, was fought from 1898 to 1899 between two factions. On the one side were the conservatives, supported by the country's political, economic, and religious elite, who controlled the armed forces and aimed to defend a unitary state. On the other side were the liberals, who opposed the policies set by the state and intended to transform the country into a federation, gaining support from the peasantry, indigenous peoples, and small Catholic businesses.

The conflict was ultimately won by the liberal side, putting an end to decades of political rule by the Bolivian conservatives. This victory led to a time of political change called the Federal Revolution. The outcome included an attempt to move the country's capital from Sucre to La Paz, but subsequent political conflicts challenged this process, and Sucre remained the constitutional capital.

During the war, both sides committed atrocities against civilians. Within the territories controlled by each faction, a surge of revolutions and counter-revolutions further complicated the everyday lives of civilians. Foreign interests were also present, with the liberals having strong links with Peru and the conservatives with Chile.

The post-war period was marked by disillusionment with the Federal Government Junta, created by members of the liberal faction. While the Junta did implement some political reforms, it largely continued the political foundations of its predecessors, including preserving the unitary state and rejecting the establishment of a federal or confederal state. Additionally, the new government failed to uphold promises made to rural and indigenous communities, and protests by these groups were met with oppression and executions.

The political consequences of the civil war extended into the 20th century, as its ideological bases served as foundations for subsequent political upheaval, such as the Bolivian Revolution of 1952. The civil war represented a shift in political power from the south to the north of the country and the beginning of the political and economic hegemony of La Paz.

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