Bolivia's Revolutionary History: A Count Of Uprisings

Bolivia has a long history of coups d'etat, but the one that took place on 9 April 1952 was truly revolutionary. The Movimiento Nationalista Revolucionario (MNR) overthrew the ruling military junta, redistributing land and nationalising industries. This was the Bolivian National Revolution, which lasted from 1952 to 1964.

The 1952 Revolution

Bolivia has experienced numerous coups, but the 1952 revolution stands out as a truly revolutionary event. This period of upheaval, also known as the "Bolivian National Revolution", witnessed a series of political demonstrations and a power struggle between the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) and the ruling military junta. The MNR, an alliance of liberals and communists, sought to overthrow the existing Bolivian oligarchy and implement sweeping socioeconomic reforms.

The roots of the 1952 Revolution can be traced back to the Great Depression and Bolivia's defeat in the Chaco War. The economic crisis weakened the mining industry, prompting state intervention in the economy and attempts to address deep-seated socioeconomic issues. During the 1920s, the nationalist government of Hernando Siles Reyes implemented corrective measures, which were later deepened by the military governments of Germán Busch and David Toro, influenced by European nationalism.

The Chaco War with Paraguay, which lasted from 1932 to 1936, resulted in a profound loss of life and territory for Bolivia. This defeat discredited the traditional ruling classes and sparked political awareness among the indigenous population. It also intensified ideological conflicts and demands for change within Bolivia.

In the post-war period, a group of middle-class professionals, writers, and young officers known as the "Chaco Generation" emerged, advocating for social change and the rights of indigenous people. They were influenced by the slogan "land to the Indians, mines to the state", reflecting their desire for a more equitable distribution of resources.

The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) became a significant force in Bolivian politics, attracting intellectuals, white-collar workers, and blue-collar workers. The party's platform included the nationalisation of natural resources and far-reaching social reforms. The MNR found support among miners, and its influence grew following the Catavi Massacre of striking miners in 1942.

In 1951, the MNR's candidate, Victor Paz Estenssoro, won the presidential election. However, the incumbent government refused to recognise the results, claiming that Paz had not received the required 51% of the vote. Instead, a military junta led by General Hugo Ballivián seized power, preventing the MNR from assuming control.

On April 9, 1952, the MNR, led by Hernan Siles Zuazo, launched a rebellion in La Paz, seizing arsenals and distributing arms to civilians, including indigenous miners and peasants. The police force, under the direction of General Seleme, played a crucial role in the uprising. Despite initial setbacks and the loss of some 600 lives, the revolutionaries prevailed, and the army surrendered.

However, the revolution also faced challenges, including severe economic problems due to high inflation and factionalism within the MNR. The presidency of Hernán Siles Zuazo from 1956 to 1960 was marked by increasing US aid, which reached 32% of the Bolivian government's total income in 1957. The MNR's attempts to consolidate power and implement their agenda ultimately led to a coup in 1964, bringing an end to this tumultuous period in Bolivia's history.

The Chaco War

The war originated in a long-standing territorial dispute. Bolivia had been landlocked since the War of the Pacific in 1879, when it lost its entire Pacific coast to Chile. In 1929, the Treaty of Lima dashed Bolivia's hopes of recovering a land corridor to the Pacific Ocean, prompting it to turn its attention to the Chaco region. Bolivia argued that the Chaco had historically been part of the Spanish colonial province of Moxos and Chiquitos, to which it was the rightful heir. Meanwhile, Paraguay based its claim on occupation of the land, with Paraguayan and Argentine settlers already exploiting the area's natural resources.

Both countries established military outposts in the Chaco, and clashes began in 1928. On December 5, 1928, Paraguay attacked Fortín Vanguardia, a Bolivian outpost, and Bolivia retaliated with raids on Paraguayan positions. Despite mediation attempts by the Pan-American League, the conflict escalated. Bolivia, with a larger and better-equipped army, initially seized Paraguayan positions in the northern Chaco and launched a successful attack on Fortín Boquerón in the central Chaco. However, Paraguay soon gained the upper hand due to its innovative fighting style and better adaptation to the lowland environment.

In May 1933, Paraguay formally declared war, and its army, led by General José Estigarribia, made significant gains. Bolivia replaced its commander, General Hans Kundt, with General Enrique Peñaranda, but continued to suffer defeats. The Paraguayan army advanced into indisputably Bolivian territory in early 1935, prompting desperate Bolivian counterattacks. A truce was finally arranged on June 12, 1935, bringing an end to the bloodiest interstate conflict in 20th-century South America.

The peace treaty, signed in Buenos Aires in July 1938, granted two-thirds of the disputed territories to Paraguay, while Bolivia received a corridor to the Paraguay River and a port. The war had a profound impact on Bolivia, discrediting the traditional ruling class and sparking political awareness among the indigenous population. It also led to the emergence of new political groups, such as the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement, which played a key role in the 1952 Bolivian National Revolution.

The rise of the MNR

The Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR) was founded in 1941 by future presidents Víctor Paz Estenssoro and Hernán Siles Zuazo, along with other intellectuals. It was originally a leftist/reformist party, attracting some of the brightest members of the Bolivian intelligentsia.

The MNR was the first party in Bolivian history with widespread support, including intellectuals, white-collar and blue-collar workers. Its platform included nationalizing all of Bolivia's natural resources and implementing far-reaching social reforms.

In 1943, the MNR came to power as supporters of the reformist military regime of Gualberto Villarroel. However, Villarroel was overthrown in 1946 due to his inability to organize popular support, and the MNR's attempts to gain power during the sexenio (1946-1952) were unsuccessful.

In 1951, Paz Estenssoro, the MNR candidate, won the presidential election. However, the sitting president, General Urriolagoitia, refused to concede, claiming that Paz had not received the required 51% of votes and that Congress would need to choose the next president. Instead, Urriolagoitia selected a group of military officers, including General Antonio Seleme Vargas, to rule as a junta.

General Seleme, who was in charge of the police force in La Paz, publicly denounced the MNR and searched for subversives. However, he was secretly supporting the MNR and planned to be made president until new elections could be held. When other junta members found out, they called for his dismissal. On April 6, 1952, Seleme was dismissed, and the MNR, led by Hernan Siles Zuazo, launched the revolt.

On April 9, supporters of the revolution announced on state radio that they had succeeded, and fighting broke out in La Paz. The MNR distributed arms to civilians and workers, and quickly took power, with around 600 lives lost. The MNR then began its "revolutionary restructuring of society", including establishing universal suffrage, nationalizing the tin mines, and instituting agrarian reform.

The MNR ruled until 1964 when it was overthrown by a military coup led by General René Barrientos Ortuño. During its time in power, the MNR implemented significant changes, and many of the old elitist parties that had previously dominated Bolivian politics disappeared or became irrelevant.

The 1964 coup

Bolivia has experienced more than 190 coups and revolutions since gaining independence in 1825. One of the most notable is the 1964 coup d'état, which ended almost two decades of democratic rule in Bolivia.

The coup brought an end to the twelve-year rule of the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) and marked the beginning of an 18-year period of military rule in Bolivia. Barrientos and Ovando justified their actions by alleging a continuation of the 1952 Revolution, calling their coup a "Restorative Revolution".

In the lead-up to the coup, Paz Estenssoro had jailed several militant labour activists, which led to miners in the Catavi mines taking a group of hostages, including four US citizens. The crisis was resolved with Lechin's help, but this marked a break in the alliance between Paz Estenssoro's MNR and the miners, which had begun in 1942.

The Bolivian Army, which had been rebuilt and increased in size in recent years, provided an alternative power base. Paz Estenssoro eventually chose Barrientos as his running mate for the May 1964 elections, bringing the army further into the political sphere. However, internal unrest continued to grow, with miners going on strike and rioting.

On October 28, 1964, there were armed clashes between the army and miners, after which Barrientos and Ovando decided to launch their coup. On November 3, troops of the Ingavi regiment rebelled in La Paz, and by the evening, all major military units had backed the coup. Paz Estenssoro and his family were exiled to Lima, Peru, the following day, as Barrientos and Ovando established their junta.

Barrientos demanded that the miners and workers' militias surrender their weapons, leading to prolonged conflicts with the miners. Miner's salaries were reduced by 50% to reduce the losses of state-owned mines. Barrientos also took away many of the gains made by the labour sector during the MNR's rule, cutting pay, reducing the workforce, and destroying unions.

The role of the US

The United States played a significant role in Bolivia's 1952 Revolution, which was led by the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR). The MNR's candidate, Victor Paz Estenssoro, won the 1951 election but was never sworn into office. Instead, a military junta, led by General Hugo Ballivián, seized power.

The United States had multiple interests in Bolivia, including humanitarian concerns, fears about the spread of Communism in the western hemisphere, and moderating or deradicalizing the revolution. The U.S. provided early and sustained support to the revolution, and its blueprint for Bolivian development in the subsequent decade was based on the Bohan Plan. In 1957, U.S. aid constituted 32% of the Bolivian government's total income, and while this percentage gradually decreased over the years, the U.S. continued to provide significant aid to Bolivia.

The U.S. sought to limit or decrease the Bolivian government's control over the economy, particularly in the extractive industries, and promote the expansion of the private sector. They pushed for compensating the expropriated mining companies and supported private property rights. The U.S. also played a role in the agrarian reforms that took place after the revolution. The agrarian reforms aimed to break up large estates and redistribute land to peasant families, but the implementation faced challenges and was not fully successful.

The United States also influenced the restructuring of the Bolivian army. The MNR reduced the size of the army and retired a significant number of officers. They formed urban and rural militias with workers and peasants, which played a prominent role in internal security and public order. However, as the army was reconstituted between 1956 and 1964, the legitimacy of the militias and the importance of the police decreased.

The United States and Bolivia's relationship continued to evolve over the years, with periods of cordial relations and increased aid, followed by tensions and deteriorating relations. The election of Evo Morales in 2006, a leftist leader who called for rapid reform, led to a deterioration of U.S.-Bolivian relations due to disagreements with Washington officials.

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