The Ancient Roots Of Afghanistan's National Identity

Afghanistan has a long history of conquest and conflict, dating back to the Middle Paleolithic era. The landlocked country has been invaded and fought over by numerous empires, including the Persians, Alexander the Great, the Mongols, the British, and the Soviet Union.

The modern state of Afghanistan began with the Durrani Afghan Empire in the 18th century, although Dost Mohammad Khan is sometimes considered the founder of the first modern Afghan state. Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great Game between the British and Russian Empires, with the British attempting to annex the country to protect their interests in India.

Following three Anglo-Afghan Wars, Afghanistan gained independence in 1919 and became the Kingdom of Afghanistan under Amanullah Khan. This monarchy lasted until 1973, when a communist revolution established a socialist state. The country has since been plagued by extensive warfare, coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars.

The Islamic fundamentalist Taliban controlled most of the country by 1996 and established an Islamic Emirate. However, their rule was short-lived, as they were overthrown by a US-led coalition in 2001. The Taliban returned to power in 2021, ending two decades of conflict. Despite their claims of forming an inclusive government, the Taliban established an interim government consisting solely of Taliban members, which remains internationally unrecognized.

The Durrani Empire, considered the foundational polity of the modern nation-state of Afghanistan, was established in the 18th century

Afghanistan's history is shared with that of neighbouring Iran, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. The Durrani Empire, also known as the Afghan Empire, is considered the foundational polity of the modern nation-state of Afghanistan.

The Durrani Empire was founded in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani, also known as Ahmad Khan, at Kandahar, Afghanistan. Ahmad Shah united the various Pashtun tribes, ending a period of Persian rule in the region. The Pashtun tribes had been growing in strength and taking advantage of the waning power of their distant rulers. Ahmad Shah's empire extended to Delhi and the Arabian Sea, and at its peak, it ruled over modern-day Afghanistan, much of Pakistan, parts of northeastern and southeastern Iran, eastern Turkmenistan, and northwestern India, including the Kashmir Valley. The Durrani Empire was one of the largest Islamic empires in the world at that time, and it is considered to be among the most significant Islamic empires of the 18th century.

Ahmad Shah's reign lasted from 1747 until his death in 1772, after which the empire began to fragment. The Emirship was passed on to his children and grandchildren, who ruled until 1823. During this time, the empire continued to face challenges from strong tribal powers and weak national authority. Ahmad Shah's legacy suggests that unity can be achieved by sharing power between the central government and local elites, a policy he initially pursued.

In the 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Anglo-Russian power struggle known as "The Great Game". The British attempted to subjugate Afghanistan but were repelled in the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842). In 1878, the British invaded again and held most of Afghanistan in the Second Anglo-Afghan War. It was not until 1919, after the Third Anglo-Afghan War, that Afghanistan gained its official independence from British rule.

The Sadozai monarchy ruled the Afghan Durrani Empire, considered the founding state of modern Afghanistan

The Durrani Empire was founded in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani at Kandahar, Afghanistan. Ahmad Shah was a member of the noble Sadōzai clan and the second son of Moḥammad Zamān Khan, a hereditary chief of the Abdālī (later, Durrānī) tribal confederation of Afghans. Ahmad Shah rose to command an Abdālī cavalry group under Nāder Shah of Persia, and, on Nāder Shah’s assassination, the Afghan chiefs elected Ahmad Shah as their new leader.

Ahmad Shah was crowned in 1747 near Kandahār, where coins were struck in his name and where he set up his capital. Ahmad Shah united the different Pashtun tribes and created the Durrani Empire, which at its peak included modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, as well as some parts of northeastern Iran, eastern Turkmenistan, and northwestern India including the Kashmir Valley.

Ahmad Shah invaded India nine times between 1747 and 1769, supposedly with no intention of founding an empire there. After an unopposed march to Delhi in 1757, he plundered that city, Agra, Mathura, and Vrindavan. Ahmad Shah invaded the remnants of the Mughal Empire a third time, and then a fourth, consolidating control over the Punjab and Kashmir regions. Then, early in 1757, he sacked Delhi, but permitted the Mughal dynasty to remain in nominal control of the city as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad Shah's suzerainty over Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir.

Ahmad Shah's son, Timur Shah Durrani, succeeded him in 1772. Timur Shah transferred the capital of their Afghan Empire from Kandahar to Kabul. The Durrani Empire is considered to be the foundational polity of the modern nation-state of Afghanistan, with Ahmad Shah Durrani being credited as its Father of the Nation.

The Emirate of Afghanistan was established in 1823

The Emirate of Afghanistan was established in the context of a rivalry between the British and Russian Empires, which Rudyard Kipling termed the "Great Game". The Emirate of Afghanistan was a pawn in struggles over political ideology and commercial influence. Dost Mohammad Khan's rule was marked by the First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842), which was fought between the British and Dost Mohammad Khan's forces. The British deposed Dost Mohammad Khan and installed Shah Shuja Durrani as the new ruler of Kabul. However, Dost Mohammad Khan was able to return to power after the British withdrew in 1842. Dost Mohammad Khan united most of the Afghan realm in his reign, launching numerous campaigns to conquer the surrounding states in Afghanistan. Dost Mohammad Khan died in 1863, a few weeks after his successful campaign to Herat. Following his death, a civil war ensued amongst his sons, leading to Sher Ali Khan winning the resulting Afghan Civil War (1863-1869).

Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great Game between the British Raj and the Russian Empire

The British attempted to annex Afghanistan in the First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842) but were repelled. The Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880) saw a British victory and the successful establishment of British political influence over Afghanistan. The Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919-1921) ended with Afghanistan becoming free of foreign political hegemony and emerging as an independent kingdom in June 1926 under Amanullah Khan.

The Kingdom of Afghanistan was established in 1926

The Kingdom of Afghanistan was established in June 1926, seven years after Amanullah Khan became king. The monarchy ended in 1973 when King Mohammed Zahir Shah was overthrown by his cousin, Mohammed Daoud Khan, who established a republic.

Amanullah Khan was keen on modernising Afghanistan, provoking several uprisings led by his conservative opponents. One such rebellion broke out while he was visiting Europe in 1927. He abdicated in favour of his brother, Inayatullah Khan, who ruled for three days before Habibullah Kalakani took power and reinstated the Emirate.

Mohammed Nadir Shah, Amanullah Khan's Minister of War, returned from exile in India and ousted the Saqqawist government. Kalakani was executed, and Nadir Shah reinstated the kingdom. He was proclaimed King of Afghanistan as Mohammed Nadir Shah in October 1929 and reverted the reformist path of Amanullah Khan.

Mohammed Nadir Shah was succeeded by his son, Mohammed Zahir Shah, whose rule started in 1933 and lasted for 39 years. Zahir Shah was the last king of Afghanistan.

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