The Complex Mosaic Of Afghanistan: A Multinational Character

Afghanistan is a multinational state with a population divided into seven major ethnic groups—the Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, Uzbeks, Aimaqs, Turkmens, and Baluchis—and many smaller ones. The Pashtuns are the largest ethnic group, constituting 40-45% of the population, but no single ethnic group holds an absolute majority. The country has two official languages, Pashto and Dari, and is geographically composed of several ethnolinguistic groups. Afghanistan's diverse ethnic makeup and multilingual character are defining features of a multinational state.

Afghanistan's ethnic puzzle: the country's population is divided into seven major ethnic groups, with Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks being the principal tribes

Afghanistan is a multiethnic and mostly tribal society, with its population consisting of numerous ethnolinguistic groups. The four principal tribes are Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks, but there are also smaller groups such as the Aimaq, Turkmen, Baloch, Pashai, Nuristani, Gujjar, Brahui, Qizilbash, Pamiri, Kyrgyz, Sadat, and others.

The term "Afghan" is synonymous with the ethnonym "Pashtun", but in modern times, the term has become the national identity of the people of Afghanistan. Pashtuns make up the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan, constituting between 40% and 52.4% of the population. They are predominantly Muslim and speak Pashto. The name "Afghanistan" translates to "land of the Afghans", or "land of the Pashtuns".

The second-largest ethnic group is the Tajiks, who make up about 27% of the population. They are native Persian-speaking people and are closely related to the Persians of Iran. The Hazaras are one of the largest ethnic groups and reside in all parts of Afghanistan, mainly in the Hazarajat region in central Afghanistan. They practice Islam, mostly the Shia sect, and linguistically, they speak the Dari and Hazaragi dialects of the Persian language. The Uzbeks are one of the main Turkic ethnic groups in Afghanistan and constitute 9% of the total population. They are predominantly Sunni Muslims and speak Uzbek, a Turkic language.

Afghanistan's population reflects its location, with the presence of several national minorities. The main ethnic groups are dispersed throughout the country: Pashtuns are concentrated mainly in the south and southeast; Tajiks inhabit the north and northeast, as well as the Kabul region; Hazaras live in the center (Hazarajat) and Kabul; Uzbeks are in the north; Aimaq in the west; Turkmens in the north; and Balochis in the west and southwest.

Afghanistan's ethnic groups have no clear boundaries between each other, and there is much overlap. They have adopted traditions and celebrations from one another and share a similar culture. For example, Nauruz is a New Year festival celebrated by various ethnic groups in Afghanistan. While each ethnic group has its own distinct traditions and cultures, there is also considerable intermarriage, particularly between the Pashtuns and other groups, blurring ethnic distinctions among communities.

Afghanistan's ethnic diversity is so great that previous despotic rulers have failed to establish a Pashtun nation-state. The country has been a single state for over 250 years, and no Afghan leader has ever endorsed secession. Despite the ethnic differences, all ethnic groups proclaim their support for a unitary state.

Afghanistan's political origins: the nation-state began as a Pashtun enterprise based in mid-18th-century Kandahar

Afghanistan's political origins lie in the mid-18th century, when Pashtun forces under Ahmad Shah Durrani created a short-lived empire that reached north across the mountains, west beyond Herat, and east to Kabul, Peshawar, and even what is now northern India. The capital was moved to cosmopolitan Kabul, but Ahmad Shah's successors soon began losing territory during vicious dynastic struggles.

The Pashtuns, an indigenous people of southern Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan, first achieved unity in the 18th century after being under foreign rule for many centuries. The eastern parts of Pashtunistan were ruled by the Mughal Empire, while the western parts were ruled by the Persian Safavids as their easternmost provinces. During the early 18th century, Pashtun tribes led by Mirwais Hotak successfully revolted against the Safavids in the city of Kandahar. In a chain of events, he declared Loy Kandahar and other parts of what is now southern Afghanistan independent.

After the death of Nader Shah in 1747 and the disintegration of his massive empire, Ahmad Shah Durrani established the Durrani Empire, which included most of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, among other regions. The famous couplet by Ahmad Shah Durrani describes the association the people have with the regional city of Kandahar:

> "I forget the throne of Delhi when I recall, the mountain peaks of my beautiful Pashtunkhwa."

The last Afghan Empire was established in 1747 and united different tribes as well as many other ethnic groups. Ahmad Shah Durrani, regarded as the founder of present-day Afghanistan, united the Pashtun tribes and by 1760 built an empire extending to Delhi and the Arabian Sea. The empire fragmented after Ahmad Shah’s death in 1772, but in 1826 Dost Mohammad, the leader of the Pashtun Muhammadzai tribe, restored order.

Afghanistan's subsequent history: the country's current borders reflect the concerns of London and Moscow more than those of Kabul

Afghanistan's current borders reflect the concerns of London and Moscow more than those of Kabul. The country's boundaries were established in the late 19th century due to the "Great Game" rivalry between imperial Britain and tsarist Russia. The two states aimed to create a buffer state between their respective dependencies, acting as a defensive barrier to prevent direct confrontation.

The Durand Line, agreed upon in 1893, is the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan, running from the Pamirs to the borders of Sistan. This border cuts through several mountain ranges and major rivers, dividing ethnolinguistic groups that share a common past and culture. The Durand Line was initially established as the frontier between the "respective spheres of influence" of Afghanistan and Britain, not as a formal international boundary.

The northern frontier of Afghanistan was dictated mainly by strategic British and Russian colonial imperatives. The boundary follows important watercourses and major mountain ridges, dividing ethnolinguistic groups. The boundary was drawn with little input from Kabul, as Britain exercised de facto control over Afghanistan's foreign policy from 1879 to 1919.

The Soviet-Afghan boundary was the first to undergo efforts at delimitation. In 1869, Russia and Britain opened negotiations to delineate their respective zones of influence in the region. The northern frontier of Afghanistan was fixed along the Amu Darya river, with the boundary extending eastward into a region of high mountains.

The Iranian-Afghan boundary, running in a north-south direction, cuts through the Iranian plateau. This boundary was established in the 18th century, following the rise of the Qajar empire in the west and the Dorrāni empire in the east. The boundary was not fully delineated until 1935, with arbitration by a neutral Turkish commission resolving the central section.

The current borders of Afghanistan are a result of geopolitical games between imperial powers, with Kabul playing a limited role in the process. The country's boundaries divide ethnolinguistic groups and have led to conflicts over territorial claims.

Afghanistan's topography: the Hindu Kush mountains split Afghanistan in half and serve as a natural division between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent

Afghanistan is a landlocked country in South-Central Asia, known for its mountainous terrain. The Hindu Kush mountains, a western extension of the Himalayas, are a prominent feature of the country's landscape and play a significant role in shaping its topography and geography.

The Hindu Kush mountain range stretches across Central and South Asia, covering a distance of approximately 800 kilometres (500 miles). It runs from central and eastern Afghanistan into northwestern Pakistan and far southeastern Tajikistan. The range forms a natural barrier between the Northern provinces of Afghanistan and the rest of the country.

The mountains serve as a dividing line, splitting Afghanistan into three distinct geographic regions: The Central Highlands, The Northern Plains, and the Southwestern Plateau. Each region exhibits unique characteristics in terms of altitude, climate, and soil conditions. The Central Highlands, with its deep, narrow valleys and high mountains, have been crucial to the defence of the country throughout history. The Khyber Pass, located in the mountain ranges of the Central Highlands, is one of the most famous routes to the Indian subcontinent.

The Hindu Kush range is not just a geographical boundary but also a watershed divide. It separates the valley of the Amu Darya (historically known as the Oxus River) to the north from the Indus River valley to the south. These two major river systems play a vital role in the ecology and economy of the region. The Hindu Kush is also a source of important minerals such as lapis lazuli and gem-grade emeralds.

The formation of the Hindu Kush mountains is a result of tectonic activity. During the late Cretaceous Period, around 70 million years ago, the Indo-Australian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate, leading to the uplift and folding of the Earth's crust. This process, known as orogeny, continues today, with the Indo-Australian Plate moving northward and the mountains gradually rising. The range is still geologically active and is prone to earthquakes.

Afghanistan's national purpose: the country's existence has been maintained by outsiders as a buffer state between the Soviet Union and the US

Afghanistan is a multi-ethnic, ethnically heterogeneous country, with multiple ethnolinguistic groups, including the Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, Uzbeks, Aimaqs, Turkmens, Balochs, and Sadats. The country's existence has been significantly influenced by its geopolitical position between rival superpowers, particularly during the Cold War era.

Following World War II, as the British Empire declined, the United States emerged as a dominant global power, and Afghanistan found itself on the Cold War front lines. The country's strategic location made it a crucial buffer state between the Soviet Union and the United States. This status was solidified during the Soviet-Afghan War, which lasted throughout the 1980s and resulted in massive destruction and loss of life in Afghanistan. The conflict was a proxy war between the two superpowers and contributed to the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union.

During this tumultuous period, Afghanistan's purpose and existence were largely defined by its role as a buffer state. The country's significance to the superpowers lay in its geographical position rather than its internal dynamics or nation-building. The focus of the United States, in particular, was on preventing Afghanistan from becoming a safe haven for al-Qaeda and countering Soviet influence. However, after the Soviet withdrawal, the United States failed to adequately engage in Afghanistan's reconstruction, leading to a power vacuum that the Taliban and al-Qaeda exploited.

The neglect of Afghanistan's social and political development during this period had severe consequences. The country's lack of a strong central government and a well-trained, adequately supported military left it vulnerable to the resurgence of the Taliban and the return of al-Qaeda. This ultimately threatened the young Afghan Government that the United States had helped establish.

In summary, Afghanistan's national purpose during this period was heavily influenced by its role as a buffer state between the Soviet Union and the United States. The country's existence was maintained by outsiders more concerned with geopolitical strategy than Afghanistan's long-term stability and nation-building. The consequences of this neglect would haunt Afghanistan and the global community for decades, underscoring the complex and challenging nature of the country's relationship with outside powers.

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