The Stolen Generations: Australia's Indigenous Assimilation Policy

Indigenous Australians, also known as Aboriginal Australians, have lived on the continent for over 65,000 years and are the oldest population of humans living outside of Africa. However, centuries of British colonisation, disease outbreaks, and forced assimilation policies have had a devastating impact on their population and culture. Between 1910 and 1970, it is estimated that between one in ten and one in three Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families, with the stated aim of assimilating them into white society and eventually breeding out their Indigenous identity. As a result of these factors, Indigenous Australians continue to face significant challenges and disparities compared to their non-Indigenous counterparts.

Infectious diseases

Smallpox, a highly contagious and deadly disease, is estimated to have killed up to half of the Aboriginal people in the Sydney area within a year of the British arrival in 1788. The disease spread rapidly, with survivors often left without family or community leaders. It is believed that the smallpox virus was introduced by Surgeon John White, who brought 'variolas matter' (pus from a recovering smallpox patient) with him on the First Fleet, intending to use it for inoculation. However, there are other theories about the origin, including French or British sailors, or Makassan mariners.

Other infectious diseases also took a heavy toll on the Indigenous population. Influenza, for example, was one of the diseases that the sailors and convicts carried, and it, along with other introduced diseases, devastated Aboriginal populations, weakened their cultures, and left them unable to resist European settlement. The introduction of these diseases, along with the loss of traditional territories and ways of life, contributed significantly to the drastic decline in the Indigenous population.

The Indigenous people of Australia had developed medicines and strategies to deal with various illnesses before colonisation. However, they were unprepared for the deadly epidemic diseases that the colonists brought with them. The impact of these infectious diseases was immediate and severe, causing high mortality rates and social upheaval among the Indigenous communities.

Genocide and massacres

The British colonisation of Australia and the subsequent actions of various Australian governments and individuals have been interpreted by many scholars as acts of genocide against Indigenous Australians. The term "genocide" was coined by Raphael Lemkin, who considered Tasmania a clear example of genocide. The Aboriginal population of Tasmania was nearly exterminated, with judge Lionel Murphy observing in 1979 that they were killed or forcibly removed from their land "in what amounted to attempted (and in Tasmania almost complete) genocide".

Genocide against Indigenous Australians has been defined using the 1948 United Nations Genocide Convention, which requires the perpetrator to commit acts with the intention to destroy, wholly or partly, "a national, ethnical, racial or religious group". This includes killing members of the group, causing serious bodily or mental harm, inflicting conditions calculated to destroy them, preventing the group from having children, and forcibly transferring children to another group.

Indigenous Australians were subjected to massacres, forced removal of children, dispersal campaigns, and forced assimilation. There were at least 270 frontier massacres over 140 years of Australian history, as part of state-sanctioned attempts to eradicate First Nations people. These massacres were often carried out preemptively or in retaliation against violent resistance by Indigenous Australians. Notable massacres include the Minnamurra River massacre, the Bathurst massacre, the Faithfull Massacre, and the Forrest River massacre.

The forced removal of Indigenous children from their families, now known as the Stolen Generations, has also been characterised as a form of genocide. Policies of forced assimilation, such as the establishment of Christian missions and the creation of Indigenous paramilitary units, further contributed to the disruption of Indigenous culture and communities.

The different state governments of Australia also undertook genocide through their individual Aboriginal protection policies, which included forced sterilisation of Aboriginal women, dispersal campaigns, and the prohibition of Indigenous traditions. These actions resulted in a significant decline in the Indigenous population, with estimates ranging from 1-1.5 million before the invasion to less than 100,000 by the early 1900s.

Forced removal of children

The forced removal of children of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent from their families is a dark chapter in the country's history. This period, known as the Stolen Generations, occurred between approximately 1905 and 1967, and in some places, continued into the 1970s. During this time, Australian federal and state government agencies, churches, and welfare bodies forcibly removed many Indigenous children from their communities. Official estimates suggest that between one in ten and one in three Indigenous children were taken, with academics like Robert Manne placing the number at around 20,000 to 25,000.

The removals were sanctioned by various government policies, including the 1897 Queensland Act, which gave authorities the right to confiscate property, expel inhabitants to other reserves, and subject them to forced labour and abuse. The Stolen Generations were a result of assimilation policies, which claimed that the lives of Indigenous people would improve if they became part of white society. These policies specifically targeted children, as they were considered more adaptable to white culture. The lighter skin colour of some children of mixed descent also made them more vulnerable to removal.

The forced removal had a devastating impact on Indigenous families and communities, disrupting oral culture and traditions. Children were denied access to their families and communities, taught to reject their Indigenous heritage, and often forbidden from speaking their native languages. Many had their names changed and were placed in institutions where abuse and neglect were common. Some children were even adopted by white families. The trauma and loss caused by these removals continue to affect Indigenous communities, families, and individuals today.

The Australian government has since acknowledged the wrongs inflicted on the Stolen Generations. In 1997, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission published the Bringing Them Home report, detailing the laws, policies, and practices that enabled the forced removal of Indigenous children. The report included 54 recommendations to redress the wrongs, including a call for an official apology. In 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd offered a formal apology to the Stolen Generations on behalf of the Australian parliament. While this was a significant step, many of the report's recommendations are yet to be enacted.

Intermarriage and self-identification

The assumption was that over generations, the intermarriage of mixed-race children with white partners would lead to the dilution of Indigenous ancestry and cultural identity. This ideology was promoted by government officials such as A. O. Neville, the Chief Protector of Aborigines in Western Australia, who advocated for the forced removal of "half-caste" or mixed-race children from their Indigenous communities. Neville and others believed that by separating these children from their families and educating them in white society, they could be trained to work and eventually marry within white communities, leading to their assimilation.

The consequences of these policies were devastating for Indigenous families and communities. Official government estimates suggest that between one in ten and one in three Indigenous children were forcibly taken from their families during the period between 1910 and 1970. This era, known as the Stolen Generations, resulted in the disruption of oral culture and traditions as parents were unable to pass on their knowledge to their children. Additionally, the removed children often faced challenges in employment and education, similar to those experienced by Indigenous children who remained in their communities.

Despite these policies and attempts at assimilation, Indigenous Australians have continued to preserve their cultural identity and heritage. Today, self-identification plays a crucial role in how individuals choose to identify themselves and their children. In the 2016 census, it was reported that up to 88% of the offspring of mixed marriages chose to self-identify as Indigenous Australians, reflecting a strong connection to their Indigenous heritage. This choice of self-identification may be influenced by various factors, including a sense of cultural pride, a desire to reconnect with one's cultural roots, or a recognition of the historical injustices faced by Indigenous communities.

Furthermore, the term "half-caste," once used to describe individuals of mixed Indigenous and non-Indigenous ancestry, is now considered pejorative and offensive. The complexions and features of individuals with mixed racial backgrounds may vary, but they can still identify with their Indigenous heritage and communities. This self-identification is a powerful assertion of their cultural identity and a rejection of the historical attempts to "breed out" their Indigenous ancestry.

Loss of land and culture

The arrival of European settlers in Australia brought about significant changes to the Indigenous people's way of life, which had continued for thousands of years. The Indigenous people had a deep spiritual connection to their land, and their society and land ownership system were misunderstood by the newcomers. This misunderstanding led to the declaration of 'terra nullius', which resulted in the dispossession of Indigenous land and the destruction of their cultures.

Indigenous Australians were evicted from their traditional territories and relocated to reserves and missions. They were also subjected to mass killings, and their customs and traditions were denied. The loss of land meant a loss of economic base, including natural and cultural resources. The communities lost their languages, ceremonies, songs, and respect for traditional lore and elders. This led to a loss of dignity, pride, and self-esteem.

The Indigenous people's connection to the land was essential to their cultural survival, and their ways of knowing and being in the world were intimately connected to the land and waters. The loss of land resulted in a conflict between two systems of law and culture, as the European settlers brought with them new concepts of land ownership and use, viewing land as an economic resource and a base for development.

The impact of colonisation on Indigenous Australians was immediate and devastating, with epidemic diseases like measles, influenza, and smallpox spreading ahead of the settlers, causing widespread death. The Indigenous people also faced sexual abuse and exploitation, as well as violence, with nearly 20,000 killed during colonisation and thousands more perishing in frontier conflicts.

The forced resettlement, removal of children, and loss of land and culture have had intergenerational effects, with many Indigenous people today experiencing social and financial disadvantages as a result. The dispossession of land and culture has meant that some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples know very little about their heritage and traditions. The loss of land and culture has been a traumatic and ongoing process for Indigenous Australians, with their laws, society, culture, and religion continually undermined by European contact.

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