The Afghan Mosaic: A Unified Nation's Complex Tapestry

Afghanistan has a long history of domination by foreign conquerors and strife among internally warring factions. The area was first unified as a single country in the 1700s, and in the 1800s, following the death of Dost Mohammad Khan, who had conquered most of the country, Afghanistan was thrown back into civil war. Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, including coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars.

In 2001, the United States invaded Afghanistan to remove the Taliban from power after they refused to hand over Osama bin Laden, the prime suspect of the September 11 attacks. The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion. During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later worked with the Northern Alliance, the anti-Taliban resistance, to end the Taliban regime.

In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, the Afghan Interim Administration under Hamid Karzai was formed. The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was established by the UN Security Council to help assist the Karzai administration and provide basic security.

Since then, Afghanistan has been attempting to build democratic structures, and in 2004, the country adopted a constitution with the name Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. In 2014, Ashraf Ghani became president, and NATO officially ended its combat mission in Afghanistan.

In 2020, the US–Taliban deal was made in Qatar, and in 2021, the Taliban took over Kabul, ending the 2001–2021 war. The Taliban government remains internationally unrecognized.

The Taliban's takeover of Afghanistan in 2021

In April 2021, US President Joe Biden announced that US military forces would leave Afghanistan by September 2021. The Taliban ramped up their offensive amid the withdrawal of international troops, capturing several border crossings and threatening government-controlled urban areas.

In early August 2021, the Taliban began direct assaults on multiple urban areas, including Kandahar and Herat. On August 6, 2021, they captured the capital of southern Nimruz Province, marking the first fall of a provincial capital. Within days, the Taliban captured more than ten other capitals, including Mazar-i-Sharif in the north and Jalalabad in the east, leaving Kabul as the only major urban area under government control.

On August 15, 2021, Taliban fighters entered the capital, Kabul. Afghan President Ashraf Ghani fled the country, and the Afghan government collapsed. The Taliban announced that they had entered the presidential palace, taken control of Kabul, and were establishing checkpoints to maintain security.

The speed of the Taliban's territorial gains and the collapse of the Afghan government surprised US officials and allies. Following the Taliban's takeover, the Biden administration authorized the deployment of additional troops to assist with the evacuation of US and allied personnel, as well as thousands of Afghans who had worked with the US.

On August 26, 2021, two suicide bombings outside the Kabul airport killed at least 169 Afghans and 13 US troops. ISIS-K claimed responsibility for the attacks. The Pentagon announced the completion of the US troop withdrawal on August 31, 2021.

The Taliban's takeover of Afghanistan has had significant consequences for the country. Girls are once again barred from secondary schools, and women are required to have a male relative as a companion when traveling significant distances and to cover their faces in public. Music has been banned, and public executions, amputations, and flogging have been reintroduced.

The humanitarian situation in Afghanistan has also deteriorated, with the country facing food shortages, a collapsing economy, and a lack of access to basic services such as healthcare and education. The Taliban's restrictive laws and policies have led to a reduction in foreign aid, further exacerbating the crisis.

The international community has not recognized the Taliban as the legitimate government of Afghanistan and has called for the protection of human rights, particularly those of women and girls. Despite international pressure, the Taliban have continued to enforce their strict interpretation of Islamic law, with little indication of a willingness to compromise.

The US-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001

The invasion was led by the US and the UK, and was supported by Australia, Canada, France, and Germany. The invasion began on October 7, 2001, with air strikes on 31 targets across the country. The Taliban regime was removed from power, and a new government was formed. The invasion was followed by a manhunt for bin Laden, who escaped to Pakistan, and Mullah Omar, the Taliban leader, who fled to Quetta.

The invasion was the first phase of what would become a 20-year war in Afghanistan. The second phase, from 2002 until 2008, was marked by a US strategy of defeating the Taliban militarily and rebuilding core institutions of the Afghan state. The third phase, from 2008, was a turn to classic counterinsurgency doctrine, with a focus on protecting the population from Taliban attacks and reintegrating insurgents into Afghan society.

The Soviet-Afghan War (1979-1989)

The Soviet-Afghan War lasted from 1979 to 1989 and was a major conflict between the Soviet Union and the Mujahideen, an Islamic guerrilla force. The war was sparked by the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979, which aimed to support the Afghan communist government that was facing opposition from anti-communist Muslim guerrillas. The Soviets wished to expand their influence in Asia, preserve the Communist government, and protect their interests in Afghanistan from Iran and Western nations.

The Soviet invasion had significant implications globally and locally. Globally, it led to the US Senate refusing to ratify the SALT II arms-limitation treaty and a boycott of the 1980 Moscow Summer Olympics by the USA and 64 other countries. Locally, the invasion prolonged Afghanistan's civil war, pitting the central government against regions, and faction against faction.

The Soviet forces faced fierce resistance from the Mujahideen, who employed guerrilla tactics and enjoyed the support of the local population and foreign allies such as the USA. The mountainous and arid terrain of Afghanistan also favoured the defenders. The Soviets attempted to eliminate civilian support for the Mujahideen by bombing and depopulating rural areas, leading to a massive flight of refugees to Pakistan and Iran. Despite deploying over 100,000 troops, the Soviets were unable to defeat the Mujahideen and suffered heavy casualties.

In 1988, the Soviet Union signed an accord with the USA, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, agreeing to withdraw its troops. The Soviet withdrawal was completed on February 15, 1989, with Afghanistan returning to a non-aligned status. The war had far-reaching consequences, including the rise of the Taliban and the establishment of a weak state full of religious and sectarian hatred, which became a breeding ground for terrorism.

The formation of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978)

The formation of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) in 1978 was the result of a communist revolution, known as the Saur Revolution, which overthrew the government of then-President Mohammed Daoud Khan. The DRA was led by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), with Nur Muhammad Taraki as its first leader.

Taraki's government implemented several contentious reforms, including land reforms, marriage reforms, and an enforced policy of de-Islamization alongside the promotion of socialism. These reforms, which included the introduction of universal education and equal rights for women, were unpopular and sparked a backlash from conservative and religious groups. This opposition, coupled with infighting between the PDPA's Khalq and Parcham factions, led to a power struggle that resulted in Taraki's overthrow and assassination in September 1979.

Taraki was succeeded by Hafizullah Amin, who became prime minister and retained his position as PDPA General Secretary. Amin's rule was marked by increasing opposition, both domestically and from the Soviet Union, who had been a key supporter of the PDPA. In December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, killing Amin and installing Babrak Karmal as the new leader. Karmal's era, which lasted from 1979 to 1986, saw the height of the Soviet-Afghan War, with Soviet and Afghan government forces fighting against the Afghan mujahideen.

During Karmal's rule, a new constitution was introduced, and several non-PDPA members were allowed into the government as part of a policy of broadening its support base. However, Karmal's policies failed to bring peace to the war-ravaged country, and he was replaced by Mohammad Najibullah in 1986. Najibullah pursued a policy of National Reconciliation, attempting to negotiate with the opposition and establish a coalition government. Despite these efforts, the government continued to face resistance, and in 1992, following the Soviet withdrawal, Najibullah's government collapsed, triggering another civil war that led to the rise of the Taliban.

The rise of the Taliban (1994)

Afghanistan has a long history of conflict and unification efforts. In the 19th century, Afghanistan was reunified by Dost Mohammad Khan after seven decades of civil war. Dost Mohammad's campaigns of reunification, including the Hazarajat campaign and the conquests of Balkh, Kunduz, and Kandahar, united most of the Afghan realm under the Emirate of Kabul. However, his death in 1863 triggered another civil war among his successors.

Now, onto the detailed focus on the rise of the Taliban in 1994:

The Taliban's rise to power in Afghanistan began in 1994, capturing international attention for their rapid territorial gains in the southwestern, southern, and eastern provinces bordering Pakistan. The Taliban movement was initially seen as an uprising against the warlords of the early 1990s, who were widely despised by the local population. The Taliban's emergence can be traced back to the madrassas, or religious schools, which served as a source of recruits and ideological incubation for the group.

The Taliban's battlefield successes were significant, allowing them to establish control over these regions without much opposition. Mullah Ihsan Ullah, the Taliban governor in 1995, boasted about the group's acceptance among Pashtuns in the eastern province of Paktia. He highlighted that he was welcomed by the elders in the provincial capital of Khost without any violence. The Taliban's governance was marked by their strict interpretation of Islamic law and human rights violations, even extending to visiting Pakistani athletes who were punished for wearing shorts, which violated the Taliban's dress code.

The Taliban's role in Afghanistan's politics, economy, and military affairs became pervasive during this period. Their influence extended beyond the borders of Afghanistan, impacting the region's dynamics. The internal dynamics of the Taliban regime during its rise and subsequent fall between 1994 and 2001 is a significant aspect of Afghanistan's history and has been the subject of academic studies.

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