Leslie Massey
The history of Australia is deeply intertwined with Britain, from the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships in 1788 to the gradual transition to self-governance in the 20th century. The British established colonies, leading to a decline in the Aboriginal population and disruption of their cultures due to introduced diseases, violent conflict, and dispossession of their lands. This period also marked the beginning of Australia's economic ties with Britain, with foreign investment and trade playing a significant role. The legacy of British influence can be seen in various aspects of Australian society, including its democratic institutions, legal system, and even its currency. While Australia gained independence after World War I, it continued to have links to Britain, and the two countries shared a common heritage and outlook for many years to come.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Australia's status as a British colony | The colony of New South Wales was established in January 1788, with the arrival of the First Fleet of 11 vessels and over a thousand settlers, including convicts. |
| British investment in Australia | Between 1870 and 1913, about 8% of Britain's total foreign investment went to Australia. As of 2012, the stock of foreign invested capital from the UK amounted to almost $500 billion. |
| British military presence in Australia | The New South Wales Corps was formed in England in 1789 as a permanent regiment of the British Army. British troops were involved in suppressing convict rebellions and battling insurgent miners. |
| Aboriginal dispossession and decline | British settlement led to a decline in the Aboriginal population due to introduced diseases, violent conflict, and dispossession of their traditional lands. About 20,000 Aboriginal people are believed to have been killed in the wars of the frontier. |
| Australian currency linked to Britain | The Australian Pound was linked to the pound sterling, and Australian banks kept reserve balances in sterling ('London funds'). |
| Australian independence from Britain | Australia achieved independent sovereign nation status after World War I under the Statute of Westminster, which was ratified by Australia in 1942. The Australia Act of 1986 removed any remaining links between the British Parliament and Australia. |
| British exploration and naming of Australia | Lieutenant James Cook charted the east coast of Australia and claimed it for Great Britain in 1770. The name 'Australia' received official backing from 1817, replacing the previous name 'New Holland'. |
| British influence on Australian governance | The first European-style governments established in Australia after 1788 were autocratic and run by appointed governors. English law was transplanted into the Australian colonies, bringing notions of rights and processes from documents like the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689. |
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What You'll Learn
Colonisation and the decline of the Aboriginal population
The Aboriginal population in Australia suffered a drastic decline following British colonisation. The Aboriginal Australians were the first inhabitants of the continent, having lived there for over 60,000 years. They settled throughout continental Australia and many nearby islands, establishing artistic, musical, and spiritual traditions that are among the longest-surviving in human history.
In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook charted the east coast of Australia and claimed it for Great Britain. The British established a penal colony at Botany Bay in 1788, marking the beginning of European colonisation in Australia. This colonisation process had a devastating impact on the Aboriginal population, leading to a decline in their numbers and a disruption of their cultures.
The main factors contributing to the decline of the Aboriginal population were introduced diseases, violent conflict, and dispossession of their traditional lands. Diseases such as smallpox, influenza, and measles, to which the Aboriginal people had no resistance, caused a significant number of deaths. Additionally, there were instances of random killings, punitive expeditions, and organised massacres of Aboriginal people by European colonists. The Black War, fought largely as a guerrilla war, claimed the lives of 600 to 900 Aboriginal people and contributed to the near-annihilation of the island's indigenous population.
The British takeover of Aboriginal land was justified by the concept of 'terra nullius', which assumed that the land belonged to no one. This belief, coupled with the notion of European cultural superiority, led to the dispossession and marginalisation of Aboriginal communities. The survivors of these conflicts were often forced to live on the fringes of European society, facing further health and social challenges.
Furthermore, the colonisation process disrupted the traditional kinship systems and ceremonial obligations of the Aboriginal people. The removal of Indigenous children from their communities during the early days of colonisation until as recently as the 1970s broke vital spiritual, familial, and cultural ties. Despite the resilience and strength of Indigenous communities, the impacts of colonisation have had long-lasting intergenerational consequences.
In conclusion, the colonisation of Australia by Britain had a devastating impact on the Aboriginal population, leading to a decline in their numbers and a disruption of their cultures and traditions. The effects of this colonisation are still being felt today, and the process has left a legacy of violence, dispossession, and cultural loss.
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Military rule and conflict with Indigenous Australians
The British settlement of Australia led to a protracted and violent conflict with Indigenous Australians, as well as a decline in their population and the disruption of their traditional cultures and land ownership. The British government's decision to establish a colony in Australia was influenced by the need to relieve prison pressure following the loss of its American colonies, and to counter French expansion in the Pacific. The First Fleet of British ships arrived at Botany Bay in January 1788, carrying over a thousand settlers, including convicts, to establish a penal colony. This marked the beginning of a century of British colonisation, during which the Indigenous population faced violent conflict, introduced diseases, and dispossession of their lands.
The British military presence in Australia was primarily focused on maintaining control over the colonies and addressing external threats. However, there were rare instances of British military involvement in conflicts with Indigenous Australians, such as during periods of martial law in Tasmania (1828-1832) and in New South Wales in the 1820s and 1830s. The New South Wales Corps, formed in 1789, played a significant role in the early years of the colony, including a brief period of military rule following the Rum Rebellion of 1808, led by the Corps and John Macarthur, a wool trader. This resulted in the deposition of Governor William Bligh, who had attempted to suppress the illegal rum trade and the use of Crown Land.
The conflict between European settlers and Indigenous Australians was localised and sporadic, following the frontiers of European settlement. It is estimated that around 2,500 settlers and police died in the conflict, while the cost for Aboriginal inhabitants was far higher, with about 20,000 killed in the wars and thousands more perishing from disease and other consequences of settlement. Despite resistance, the Indigenous Australians were ultimately dispossessed of their traditional lands.
The first European-style governments established after 1788 were autocratic and run by appointed governors, with power concentrated in the hands of these governors who reported directly to the British government. English law was transplanted into the colonies, bringing with it notions of rights and processes established by the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights of 1689. However, traditional Aboriginal society had historically been governed by councils of elders and collective decision-making. Agitation for representative government in the colonies began early, and by the 1850s, former colonies like New South Wales were transitioning towards semi-elected legislative councils and civil society.
In summary, British colonisation in Australia had a profound impact on the Indigenous population, leading to violent conflict, the disruption of their traditional ways of life, and ultimately, their dispossession. While the British military was not frequently involved in these conflicts, the establishment of colonies and the introduction of foreign diseases contributed significantly to the decline of Indigenous Australian communities and their way of life.
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Economic development and foreign investment
Australia's economic development and foreign investment have been influenced by Britain in several ways. Initially, following British settlement in 1788, the Australian economy was largely dependent on Britain, supplying primary products such as wool and wheat in exchange for manufactured goods and capital. This made Australia's economic prosperity susceptible to fluctuations in overseas economic conditions, particularly the demand for wool and wheat.
During the 19th century, the economic growth of the Australian colonies was influenced by various factors. The end of convict transportation to New South Wales in 1840 reduced the need for a large military presence, leading to a decline in troop strength. The separation of the private economy from the colonial government's activities in the early 1800s, marked by the recall of the New South Wales Corps in 1808, contributed to the development of a 'colonial' economy. Additionally, the skills brought by convicts, who later joined the free population, contributed to the economic growth of the colonies.
The pre-World War I period witnessed significant economic growth in Australia, with expansion in rural industries, construction, manufacturing, and government services. The manufacturing sector experienced notable growth, with the number of factory workers increasing significantly from 1900 to 1914. However, the outbreak of World War I in 1914 disrupted export markets and shipping, causing a negative impact on the Australian economy. The war led to a shift in Britain's sourcing of supplies, and Australia's increased reliance on shipping for trade made it more vulnerable compared to other regions.
In the post-World War I era, Australia faced economic challenges due to heavy borrowing and exposure to volatile world markets. The country experienced a recession in the late 1920s, and the Great Depression of the 1930s further exacerbated economic difficulties, particularly due to Australia's dependence on exports of primary products. During this period, the Australian economy was advised by Sir Otto Niemeyer from the Bank of England, who suggested that Australia needed to lower its living standards to service its international debts.
Britain's role as a trading partner for Australia declined from the 1950s onwards, as other markets, especially in East Asia, became more prominent. Nonetheless, the institutional frameworks established during the colonial period and the shared heritage of common law and parliamentary democracy continued to shape Australia's economic development and foreign investment landscape.
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The Australian Pound and the Bank of England
The Australian Pound (£) was the currency of Australia from 1910 until 14 February 1966, when it was replaced by the Australian dollar. The Australian pound was linked to the pound sterling, and Australian banks kept reserve balances in sterling, also known as 'London funds'.
The establishment of a separate Australian currency was contemplated by Section 51(xii) of the Constitution of Australia, which gave the Federal Parliament the power to legislate concerning "currency, coinage, and legal tender". The Deakin government's Coinage Act of 1909 distinguished between "British coin" and "Australian coin", giving both equal status as legal tender. The Act also gave the Treasurer the authority to issue silver, bronze, and nickel coins, with the dimensions, denominations, weight, and fineness to be determined by the Governor-General.
The pound (in banknote form) was first issued in Australia in 1910 by several Australian chartered banks. The Bank of New South Wales was the first bank to issue banknotes of the Australian pound in 1817. These private bank notes were widely used and accepted, although their acceptance was not compulsory by legal tender laws. In 1910, superscribed banknotes were used as the Commonwealth's first national paper currency until the Treasury began issuing Commonwealth banknotes in 1913. The Commonwealth Bank Act of 1920 gave note-issuing authority to the Commonwealth Bank.
The Australian pound was also used in New Zealand, where Australian coins made up approximately 30% of the total circulation. During World War II, the Empire of Japan produced currency notes denominated in the Australian pound for use in Pacific island countries intended for occupation.
In 1929, as an emergency measure during the Great Depression, Australia left the gold standard, resulting in a devaluation relative to sterling. In 1931, the government devalued the local unit by 20%, making one Australian pound equal to 16 shillings sterling, and one pound sterling equal to 25 Australian shillings. In 1949, when the United Kingdom devalued sterling against the US dollar, Australia followed suit to prevent the Australian pound from becoming overvalued in sterling zone countries, which were Australia's primary external trade partners at the time.
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Australia's independence and the Statute of Westminster
Australia's path to independence from Britain was a gradual process that spanned over a century, with the Statute of Westminster in 1931 being a pivotal moment in this journey.
Australia's history as a British colony began in 1788 with the arrival of the First Fleet, establishing the colony of New South Wales and sparking a period of colonisation that led to the founding of other colonies across the continent. The human history of Australia, however, dates back millennia to the arrival of the first ancestors of Aboriginal Australians from Maritime Southeast Asia. The artistic, musical, and spiritual traditions they established are among the longest-surviving in human history.
During the 19th century, British policy towards its colonies began to evolve, and the concept of responsible government emerged. This meant that colonial governments were held accountable to legislatures, just as the British cabinet was responsible to the British Parliament. In 1848, Nova Scotia became the first colony granted responsible government, and in 1852, Victoria became the first Australian colony to achieve self-governance. The other Australian colonies gradually followed suit, gaining self-governance throughout the second half of the 19th century.
The colonies of Australia united to form the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, which became a Dominion of the British Empire. This marked a significant shift in Australia's status, as it was now considered an autonomous community within the British Empire, equal in status to the United Kingdom. The Balfour Declaration of 1926, which emerged from the 1926 Imperial Conference, further solidified this notion of Dominion status and equality among the Dominions and the UK.
The Statute of Westminster in 1931 was a pivotal moment in Australia's journey towards independence. It legally clarified the relationship between Britain and its Dominions, including Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Newfoundland, and Eire. The statute affirmed the sovereignty and increased the autonomy of these self-governing Dominions, requiring their consent for British legislation to be applied within their territories.
However, Australia did not immediately ratify the Statute of Westminster. It took until 1942, with the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act, for Australia to formally adopt the statute and demonstrate its independence to the world. This delay was largely due to opposition from prominent figures like John Latham, who preferred to handle issues of autonomy within the 'family' of Commonwealth countries rather than through written law. Nonetheless, the adoption of the Statute of Westminster in 1942 marked a significant milestone in Australia's path towards full independence and sovereignty.
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Frequently asked questions
In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook charted the east coast of Australia and claimed it for Great Britain. In 1788, the First Fleet of British ships arrived at Botany Bay to establish a penal colony. This marked the beginning of British colonization in Australia, which led to a decline in the Aboriginal population and the disruption of their cultures due to introduced diseases, violent conflict, and dispossession of their traditional lands.
The British colonization of Australia had a devastating impact on the Aboriginal population. It led to a decline in their numbers and disrupted their cultures due to introduced diseases, violent conflict, and the loss of their traditional lands. Approximately 20,000 Aboriginal people are believed to have been killed in the wars of the frontier, with many thousands more perishing from disease and other unintended consequences of settlement.
The first European-style governments established in Australia after 1788 were autocratic and run by appointed governors. English law was transplanted into the Australian colonies, bringing with it notions of rights and processes established by the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights of 1689. Agitation for representative government began soon after, and in 1850, Britain granted semi-representative Legislative Councils to Van Diemen's Land, South Australia, and the newly created colony of Victoria.
Yes, Britain invested in Australia. Between 1870 and 1913, about 8% of Britain's total foreign investment went to Australia. Even in the mid-1950s, the UK's investment in Australia was more than double that of any other country. This investment has continued to grow, with the stock of foreign invested capital from the UK amounting to almost $500 billion as of 2012.
