Bolivia's Lost Hat: A Cultural Mystery Unveiled

Bolivia's history is riddled with territorial losses, internal strife, and tumultuous politics. In 1867, the British ambassador to Bolivia, having refused a glass of chicha, was humiliated by the Bolivian dictator, Mariano Melgarejo, and forced to drink an entire bowl of liquid chocolate. The ambassador was then paraded around La Paz's main square, tied up and seated backwards on a donkey, before being sent back to London. When he recounted this incident to Queen Victoria, she was enraged and vowed to bombard Bolivia's capital. However, upon realising that La Paz was beyond the reach of British cannons, she simply marked an X on the map and declared, Bolivia does not exist. This set the tone for Bolivia's future, as it continued to lose territories and resources due to internal conflicts and the ambitions of neighbouring countries.

Bolivia's internal strife

Melgarejo's rule witnessed the first of Bolivia's many dismemberments. In 1867, he concluded the Treaty of Ayacucho, trading a slice of Bolivia's northernmost territory to Brazil in exchange for a white horse. He drew a hoof-like shape on the map, delineating the part of Bolivia that would become Brazilian. However, Brazilian encroachment continued on lands that were nominally Bolivian but largely unexplored and unsettled.

In the late 19th century, Bolivia was the second-largest producer of rubber. When the Bolivians attempted to tax the export of rubber, foreigners allied with the Brazilians in what became the Acre War (1899-1903). Bolivia lost more than 190,000 square kilometers to Brazil, an area almost four times the size of Costa Rica.

Bolivia's internal discord was also evident in the strife over the nationalization of gas reserves in 2003, which led to the so-called Gas War. Dozens of casualties and threats of secession by mineral-rich parts of the country ensued. This propelled Evo Morales, the first Bolivian from the country's indigenous majority, to the presidency.

The War of the Pacific

The war was not confined to land battles but also involved naval engagements in the Pacific Ocean and the Atacama Desert. Chile's superior military prowess allowed it to overcome the Bolivian and Peruvian armies. Bolivia withdrew from the conflict after the Battle of Tacna in May 1880, leaving Peru to fight alone. Chilean forces occupied Lima, the Peruvian capital, in January 1881, and Peru's resistance continued for three more years, with encouragement from the United States.

The war concluded with the Treaty of Ancón in October 1883, signed between Chile and Peru. Chile acquired the Peruvian territory of Tarapacá and the disputed Bolivian department of Litoral, turning Bolivia into a landlocked country. Chile also gained temporary control over the Peruvian provinces of Tacna and Arica. The conflict had a profound impact on the region, with Bolivia losing its coastline and Peru suffering significant economic and human losses.

Bolivia's coastal fixation

The loss of Litoral is a result of the War of the Pacific (1879-1883), also known as the Guano War. The war was fought over the Atacama Desert, which contained valuable guano deposits. Guano was an important source of fertiliser and a major ingredient in explosives. Spanish treaties that placed colonial borders "at" the desert were never sufficiently clarified, enabling both Chile and Bolivia to claim possession.

The Chaco War

The roots of the Chaco War can be traced back to the War of the Pacific (1879-1884), in which Bolivia lost its entire Pacific coast to Chile. As a result, Bolivia aimed to gain access to the Atlantic by utilising the rivers that flowed through the Chaco Boreal region. However, Paraguay also laid claim to this region, and both countries established military outposts there.

On December 5, 1928, Paraguay initiated a series of clashes by attacking Fortín Vanguardia, a Bolivian outpost. Bolivia retaliated with raids against Paraguayan outposts, and despite arbitration efforts, full-scale war broke out in 1932. In June of that year, Bolivian forces seized Paraguayan positions in the northern Chaco and launched a successful attack on Fortín Boquerón in the central Chaco. Paraguay responded by ordering a general mobilisation and sending an army under General José Estigarribia to recapture Boquerón, which fell at the end of September.

Bolivia's army, commanded by German General Hans Kundt, concentrated its forces in the south. On May 10, 1933, Paraguay formally declared war. Estigarribia's army launched a series of attacks and made significant gains, leading Bolivia to replace Kundt with General Enrique Peñaranda. Despite having a larger population, a well-trained army, and superior weaponry, Bolivian forces suffered from low morale and lacked experience fighting in the lowland swamps and jungles of the Chaco.

In January 1934, Estigarribia renewed his offensive against the key Bolivian outpost of Ballivián on the Pilcomayo River. Heavy fighting ensued, and Ballivián fell to Paraguay on November 17. Paraguayan forces continued their advance into undisputed Bolivian territory until early 1935, when desperate Bolivian counterattacks drove them back. A truce was signed on June 12, 1935, bringing an end to the conflict that had claimed around 100,000 lives.

The Chaco Peace Conference, which included Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, and the United States, mediated a peace treaty signed in Buenos Aires on July 21, 1938. Paraguay gained the majority of the disputed region, while Bolivia received a corridor to the Paraguay River and a port. The war had a significant impact on Bolivia, disrupting its economy and sparking demands for reform among the country's masses.

Bolivia's dictators

Bolivia has had a long history of political instability and has been ruled by a procession of dictators since gaining independence in 1825.

Mariano Melgarejo, who seized power in 1864, is considered by some to be the country's worst leader. During his six-year dictatorship, Melgarejo witnessed the first of Bolivia's many dismemberments. He was attuned to the career opportunities that Bolivia's tempestuous politics offered its military officers, and he was eager to fight. He blamed his 1854 rebellion against dictator Manuel Belzu on alcohol and was pardoned for his treason. However, in 1861, he rose again, this time against the government of the day. He helped General José María de Achá into power, only to depose him three years later. Melgarejo also defeated Belzu's forces and personally executed his former pardoner. In 1867, he concluded the Treaty of Ayacucho, trading a slice of Bolivia's northernmost territory to Brazil for a white horse.

Another notable dictator was René Barrientos, who came to power in 1964. Barrientos, a Quechua-speaking general, insisted that his assumption of power was not a counterrevolutionary move and promised to restore the Bolivian National Revolution to its "true path". He continued many of the policies of the previous administration, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF) stabilization plan and the Triangular Plan. Barrientos encouraged the private sector and foreign investment and gave the Gulf Oil Company permission to export petroleum and natural gas from Bolivia. However, his attempt to impose taxes on peasants resulted in a violent response and a loss of support in rural areas. Barrientos died in a helicopter crash in 1969, which some considered suspicious.

Hugo Banzer Suárez ruled Bolivia from 1971 to 1978, with a brief interruption in 1974. His presidency was characterized by relative political stability and unprecedented economic growth. Exports tripled between 1970 and 1974 due to increased production of petroleum, natural gas, and tin. However, Bolivia also reverted to the repression of earlier regimes. The new Minister of the Interior, Colonel Andrés Sélich, ordered a massive crackdown on the left, abolishing labor unions and closing universities.

The most notorious dictator in Bolivia's history was Luis García Meza Tejada, who ruled from 1980 to 1981. He was a right-wing, ultra-conservative, anti-communist general who endeavored to bring a Pinochet-style dictatorship to Bolivia. He immediately outlawed all political parties, exiled opposition leaders, repressed trade unions, and muzzled the press. His regime became internationally known for its extreme brutality, with an estimated 1,000 people killed by the Bolivian Army and security forces in just 13 months. The García Meza government's drug trafficking activities led to the country's complete isolation. He was eventually pressured to resign and was succeeded by Celso Torrelio, who was equally repressive but less tainted by corruption.

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