Ruqayyah Snyder
Australia has a long and complex history, with the continent first inhabited by Indigenous Australians tens of thousands of years ago. The first British settlement occurred on January 26, 1788, when Captain Arthur Phillip guided a fleet of 11 ships to the colony of New South Wales, marking the beginning of white colonisation. This date is now commemorated as Australia Day, although it is controversial, with many Aboriginal Australians referring to it as Invasion Day.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Earliest human occupation | Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land |
| Spread of population | Devil's Lair, Tasmania, mainland Australia |
| Oldest human remains | Lake Mungo, New South Wales |
| Technology | Small back-bladed stone tools, wooden javelins, boomerangs, stone points for spears, spear throwers |
| European arrival | 16th century |
| First circumnavigation of Australia | 1801-02 by Matthew Flinders |
| First circumnavigation of Tasmania | 1798-99 by George Bass and Matthew Flinders |
| Founding of New South Wales | 1788 by the British as a penal colony |
| Number of convicts transported to Australia | Over 160,000 |
| Countries of origin for convicts | England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales |
| End of convict transportation | 1868 |
| Gold discovery | Mid-1800s |
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What You'll Learn
Early human occupation
The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land, in the north of Australia, is the oldest site of human occupation in the country. The population spread from the north, occupying a range of different environments. Devil's Lair in the southwest was occupied around 47,000 years ago, and Tasmania was occupied 39,000 years ago. The oldest human remains found are at Lake Mungo in New South Wales, dated to around 41,000 years ago. The site also suggests one of the world's oldest known cremations, indicating early evidence for religious ritual among humans.
From 46,000 years ago, fire-stick farming was used to clear vegetation, make travel easier, and create open grasslands rich in food sources. The Aboriginal population faced significant changes in the climate and environment. Around 19,000 years ago, temperatures and sea levels began to rise. Tasmania became separated from the mainland about 14,000 years ago, and thousands of islands in the Torres Strait and around the coast of Australia were formed between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago.
The warmer climate was associated with new technologies. Small back-bladed stone tools appeared 15–19 thousand years ago, and wooden javelins and boomerangs have been found dating from 10,000 years ago. Stone points for spears have been dated to 5–7 thousand years ago, and spear throwers were probably developed more recently than 6,500 years ago.
Aboriginal Tasmanians were isolated from the mainland from about 14,000 years ago, resulting in a lack of tools and equipment. Coastal Tasmanians switched from fish to abalone and crayfish, and more Tasmanians moved inland.
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European exploration and settlement
The history of European exploration and settlement in Australia dates back to the 16th century. However, there is evidence of human occupation in Australia that far predates the arrival of Europeans, with the Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land being the oldest site, dating back tens of thousands of years.
Prior to the arrival of Europeans, travellers from Asia may have reached Australia. For instance, China's control of South Asian waters could have extended to a landing in Australia in the early 15th century. Muslim voyagers who settled in Southeast Asia also came within 300 miles (480 km) of Australia, and it is possible that some individuals could have been carried further by wind or current.
In the 16th century, the Portuguese debated the issue of a "terra australis incognita" (Latin for "unknown southern land"), which was a topic in European thought that was revived from the 12th century onwards. The Dieppe maps, which date back to 1528, present a landmass called "Java la Grande", which some scholars interpret as evidence of Portuguese discovery of the Australian landmass.
In 1567, an expedition from Peru commanded by Álvaro de Mendaña discovered the Solomon Islands. Mendaña hoped to find gold and believed he had discovered the great southern land, which he wanted Spain to colonize. In 1595, Mendaña sailed again but failed to rediscover the Solomons. One of his officers, Pedro Fernández de Quirós, was a devout Roman Catholic and was certain of the existence of the southern land, seeking to establish the religion there.
Quirós gained the support of King Philip III of Spain for an expedition, which left Callao, Peru, in December 1605 and reached the New Hebrides. Quirós named the island group Australia del Espirítu Santo and performed an elaborate ritual to celebrate. However, he was forced to return to Latin America due to troubles. The other ship of the expedition, led by Luis de Torres, sailed through the Torres Strait but likely did not sight Australia. Despite Quirós's enthusiasm, the Spanish authorities did not mount another expedition.
In 1606, Willem Jansz of Amsterdam sailed from Bantam in the Dutch East Indies in search of New Guinea aboard the Duyfken. This was followed by the arrival of the British in 1788, who founded New South Wales as a penal colony. Over the next 80 years, more than 160,000 convicts were transported to Australia from Britain and Ireland, instead of being given the death penalty.
The early years of the colony saw the development of businesses and agriculture, with women playing active roles. One-third of the shareholders of the first colonial bank, founded in 1817, were women. Notable women from this period include Mary Reibey, a former convict turned entrepreneur, and Elizabeth Macarthur, an agriculturalist.
In the 19th century, gold was discovered in Australia, leading to a gold rush similar to that of the American Wild West. Remote towns across the country flourished as people from all walks of life were drawn by the prospect of striking it rich. This period also saw the emergence of bushrangers, escaped convicts who became local bandits or highwaymen. One of the most infamous bushrangers was Ned Kelly, who has become a folk hero in Australian culture.
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Convict transportation
The British government founded New South Wales, a state in southeast Australia, as a penal colony in 1788. Over the next 80 years, more than 160,000 convicts were transported to Australia from England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Many of these convicts were transported in lieu of receiving the death penalty. The crimes that led to their conviction were often petty, such as stealing a loaf of bread or highway robbery. Some were children, some were political prisoners, and some were falsely accused.
Convicts in Australia were used as labourers in the colonies. They built many of the buildings and infrastructure that formed the basis of the new colonies. For example, Fremantle Prison near Perth was built by convict labour from limestone quarried on-site. Today, it is a tourist attraction where visitors can learn about what life was like for those serving sentences and those keeping guard.
Escaped convicts in Australia were known as bushrangers, a local term for bandits or highwaymen. One of the most famous bushrangers was Ned Kelly, who has become a Robin Hood-like folk hero. Kelly was born to an Irish father charged with pig theft and was eventually charged with petty crimes himself. He and his family said they were being persecuted by the police. After being accused of shooting a policeman, Kelly escaped into the Australian bush and formed the Kelly Gang with his brother and two friends in April 1878. They spent two years on the run, robbing banks and killing police officers in shoot-outs. Their time as bushrangers ended in a nine-hour battle with the police, in which Kelly was captured and later hanged.
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Indigenous Australians
The Indigenous Australians adapted to their surroundings, employing fire-stick farming techniques about 46,000 years ago to clear vegetation, enhance travel, and create grasslands abundant in food sources. They also developed new technologies, with small back-bladed stone tools appearing between 15,000 and 19,000 years ago, followed by the use of wooden javelins and boomerangs around 10,000 years ago. The oldest human remains discovered at Lake Mungo in New South Wales date back around 41,000 years and provide early evidence of religious rituals, as suggested by one of the world's oldest known cremations.
The arrival of European explorers in the 16th century marked a significant turning point in the history of Indigenous Australians. Explorers such as Álvaro de Mendaña from Spain and Willem Jansz from Amsterdam sailed in search of new lands and contributed to the European perception of a "terra australis incognita" or unknown southern land. The presence of Asian travellers in Australia prior to documented history is also a possibility, with Chinese control of South Asian waters potentially extending to Australia in the early 15th century, and Muslim voyagers settling in Southeast Asia, just 300 miles from the Australian continent.
The Aboriginal explorer Bungaree played a notable role in the exploration of Australia, becoming the first person born on the Australian continent to circumnavigate it during Matthew Flinders' expedition in 1801-02. Additionally, in 1798, John Wilson, a former convict, and his companions crossed the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, paving the way for future expeditions and the construction of a road to the Central Tablelands.
The impact of European colonisation on Indigenous Australians was profound, with the establishment of penal colonies, such as New South Wales in 1788, resulting in the transportation of over 160,000 convicts to Australia from Britain and Ireland over eight decades. This influx led to significant cultural and demographic changes, with the descendants of convicts now comprising about 20% of Australia's population. The legacy of colonisation also included the suppression of Indigenous cultures and the enforcement of property rights and ration systems that altered the social dynamics of Indigenous communities.
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Religion and education
The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land, in the north of the continent, is perhaps the oldest site of human occupation in Australia. The site suggests one of the world's oldest known cremations, indicating early evidence for religious ritual among humans.
From the 1850s, the provision of secular state schools grew. However, many religious associations, such as the Sisters of St Joseph, co-founded by Mary MacKillop in 1866, continued their educational activities.
In the early years of the Australian colonies, the Anglican clergy and schools received state support. This policy was changed under Governor Burke by the Church Acts of 1836 and 1837. The government then provided state support for the clergy and church buildings of the four largest denominations: Anglican, Catholic, Presbyterian, and, later, Methodist. State support led to a growth in church activities, and religious organizations were the main providers of school education in the first half of the nineteenth century.
One of the goals of the assisted migration programs from the 1830s was to promote the migration of women and families to provide a more even gender balance in the colonies. Between 1830 and 1850, the female proportion of the Australian settler population increased from 24% to 41%.
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Frequently asked questions
The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land is the oldest site of human occupation in Australia, dating back 47,000 years.
New South Wales, a state in southeast Australia, was founded by the British as a penal colony in 1788. Over the next 80 years, more than 160,000 convicts were transported to Australia.
New South Wales was the first state founded in Australia in 1788.
The Rocks in Sydney is the site of the first European settlement in Australia.
The first Europeans in Australia were convicts, and life for them was harsh. Many were transported for petty crimes and endured dangerous voyages and brutal conditions upon arrival.
