Lexi Webster
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a highly multicultural country with one of the highest foreign-born populations in the world. It has a strong and open economy, abundant natural resources, and a highly skilled workforce. The country has changed significantly over the centuries, from its early history as home to the world's oldest continuous culture, through British colonisation and the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, to the present day.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Population | Almost 28 million |
| Population characteristics | Highly urbanised, with most people living on the eastern seaboard |
| Most populous cities | Sydney and Melbourne, both with over 5 million people |
| Capital | Canberra |
| Geography | The world's flattest and driest inhabited continent |
| Area | 7,688,287 km2 (2,968,464 sq mi), making it the sixth-largest country in the world and the largest in Oceania |
| Climate | Influenced by the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, the Indian Ocean Dipole, and the Southern Annular Mode. Variability in rainfall leads to frequent droughts and flooding. |
| Temperature changes | A 1.5 °C rise in temperatures since 1910, with a longer bushfire season since the 1950s |
| Economy | One of the strongest-performing economies in the world, with one of the highest per capita incomes globally |
| Economy characteristics | Abundant natural resources, a highly skilled workforce, well-developed international trade relations, and a strong and open economy |
| Culture | One of the most multicultural countries in the world, with one of the highest foreign-born populations |
| History | British colonisation began in 1788 with the establishment of the penal colony of New South Wales |
| History of Indigenous people | Indigenous Australians have lived on and managed the land for more than 60,000 years, speaking 250 distinct languages |
| Politics | A federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy comprising six states and ten territories |
| Global involvement | Founding member of the United Nations, member of G20, OECD, WTO, and other international groups |
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What You'll Learn
Australia's megafauna extinction
Australia's megafauna were large animals such as elephants, mammoths, rhinoceroses, and the diprotodon, a giant wombat-like marsupial. Most of these species became extinct during the Pleistocene Epoch, as part of the broader global Late Quaternary extinction event. The causes of this extinction are still debated, with some researchers arguing for human involvement, while others point to environmental and ecological factors.
One theory suggests that the arrival of early Aboriginal Australians contributed to the extinction of megafauna through hunting and the use of fire to manage their environment. This theory is supported by evidence of scorch marks on the eggshells of Genyornis newtoni, a flightless bird that became extinct in Australia. The dates derived from optically stimulated luminescence and uranium-thorium dating of megafaunal remains also suggest that all forms of megafauna on the Australian mainland became extinct around 46,000 years ago when humans first arrived.
However, this theory has been criticised due to the sporadic presence of Sporormiella, a megafaunal proxy, in the dung of various herbivorous species. Additionally, there is evidence that megafauna lived alongside humans for several thousand years, with a surprisingly late date of 33-37,000 years ago for a Zygomaturus specimen.
In contrast, some researchers attribute the extinction of megafauna primarily to environmental and ecological factors. They argue that megafauna initially emerged in response to glacial conditions and became extinct with the onset of warmer climates. At the end of the last ice age, Australia's climate shifted from cold-dry to warm-dry, leading to a scarcity of surface water and the disappearance of most inland lakes. This environmental deterioration, including increased fire, reduction in grasslands, and loss of freshwater, may have been too much for the largest Australian animals to survive.
The debate surrounding the extinction of Australia's megafauna highlights the complexity of understanding past ecological changes and the potential impact of human activities on fragile ecosystems. While the exact causes remain contested, the loss of these majestic creatures stands as a reminder of the delicate balance between humans, the environment, and the biodiversity that depends on it.
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Colonisation and federation
Colonisation of Australia by the British began in the late 1700s. By the 1880s, the six British colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania had their own parliaments but were still subject to the law-making power of the British Parliament.
Each colony had its own government, laws, defence force, taxes, stamps, and railways. These differences led to discussions about the benefits of uniting to form a single nation. The colonies of New Zealand and Fiji were also part of these discussions but decided not to join the federation.
In 1846, the NSW Colonial Secretary Sir Edward Deas Thomson suggested federation in the New South Wales Legislative Council. The idea was dropped, but it prompted the statesman William Wentworth to propose the establishment of "a Congress from the various Colonial Legislatures" to legislate on "inter-colonial questions". In 1853, Wentworth produced a draft Bill proposing a confederation of the Australian colonies, with each colony given equal representation in an intercolonial assembly.
In the late 1880s, a serious movement for Federation emerged, fuelled by increasing nationalism and improvements in transport and communications. In 1889, Sir Henry Parkes, then Premier of New South Wales, gave a famous speech known as the 'Tenterfield Oration', arguing that Federation would allow Australia to have a united army for the country's defence.
During the 1890s, politicians and leaders from the six colonies gathered at two Constitutional Conventions, where it was decided that the new nation would be called the 'Commonwealth of Australia'. An Australian Constitution was drafted and came into force on 1 January 1901, marking the unification of the colonies and the birth of the nation of Australia.
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Industrial disputes
Other major strikes occurred in the late 1920s on the waterfront and in the coal mining and timber industries. These disputes took place against a backdrop of technological advancements in transport and communication. Coastal sailing ships were abandoned in favour of steam power, and improvements in rail and motor transport brought significant changes to work and leisure. The number of cars and lorries in Australia increased rapidly during this period, from 50,000 in 1918 to 500,000 by 1929.
The Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Service, which later became the Australian airline Qantas, was established in 1920. The Reverend John Flynn founded the world's first air ambulance, the Royal Flying Doctor Service, in 1928. Daredevil pilot Sir Charles Kingsford Smith pushed the boundaries of aviation, completing a round-Australia circuit in 1927 and traversing the Pacific Ocean from the US to Australia in 1928.
Despite these technological advancements, the 1920s in Australia were also marked by consumerism and entertainment culture, and the decline of the fledgling film industry. While Prohibition was not implemented, anti-alcohol forces succeeded in restricting hotel operating hours and closing some establishments in city suburbs.
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Climate change
Australia is highly susceptible to the effects of climate change due to its extensive arid and semi-arid areas, already warm climate, and high annual rainfall variability. The country's average land and sea temperatures have risen, with the average temperature increasing by about 1.4 °C since national records began in 1910. Australia's warmest year on record was 2019, with temperatures 1.52 °C above average. The number of days that break heat records has doubled in the past 50 years, and heatwaves are becoming more frequent and intense, causing more deaths than all other natural disasters combined in recent decades.
Higher temperatures have led to more extreme weather events, including longer droughts, heavier rainstorms, and more frequent and intense bushfires. The number and length of periods of dangerous "fire weather" have increased since the 1950s, especially in southern Australia, due to low humidity, high temperatures, and high winds. The intensity of heavy rainfall events has increased by 10% or more since 1979, and rainfall patterns are expected to continue changing, with rainfall becoming heavier and more infrequent and more common in summer than in winter. Average precipitation in the southwest and southeast is projected to decline, while regions in the northwest may experience increases in rainfall.
Australia has contributed to climate change, with its greenhouse gas emissions per capita above the world average. However, the country has also been taking steps to address climate change. The Australian government has committed to achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 under the Paris Agreement and is developing plans to increase renewable energy and reduce emissions. The States and Territories have set ambitious 2030 targets for emissions reduction, and the country has pledged to stop financing fossil fuel projects abroad. While there have been challenges and inconsistencies in implementing and upholding climate policies, Australia is working towards adapting to and mitigating the impacts of climate change.
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Reconciliation with Indigenous Australians
Reconciliation between Indigenous Australians and non-Indigenous Australians is about strengthening relationships between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and non-Indigenous peoples. This involves recognising and valuing the cultures, rights, and experiences of both groups, fostering trust and respect, and ensuring that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples participate equally in all areas of life.
The first act of reconciliation between Indigenous Australians and non-Indigenous Australians followed Lieutenant James Cook's landing at the site of modern Cooktown in 1770. Cook and his crew developed a friendly relationship with the local people, recording more than 130 words of their language. However, after the crew refused to share the turtles they had caught, the locals became angry. A Guugu Yimithirr elder intervened, presenting Cook with a broken-tipped spear as a peace offering, thus preventing a potential escalation.
In 1991, Australia made a formal commitment to reconciliation by establishing the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation. This was in response to the recommendations made in the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody report. The final report, published in April 1991, included a recommendation to initiate a process of reconciliation between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Australians. As a result, Reconciliation Australia was established in 2001 to continue the work of the Council and lead reconciliation efforts nationwide.
Reconciliation Australia's vision is based on five interrelated dimensions: race relations, equality and equity, unity, institutional integrity, and historical acceptance. The organisation promotes reconciliation by building relationships, respect, and trust between the wider Australian community and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Individuals, communities, and organisations can contribute to reconciliation by supporting campaigns such as "Close the Gap", which aims to eliminate health and life expectancy disparities between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians by 2030. Additionally, Reconciliation Action Plans (RAPs) provide a framework for organisations to implement practical actions towards reconciliation, fostering social change and economic opportunities for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.
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Frequently asked questions
Australia has always been the world's driest inhabited continent, but climate change has led to a 1.5 °C rise in Australian temperatures since 1910, with a longer bushfire season since the 1950s. There has also been a reduction in rainfall from April to October in southern Australia since 1970.
Australia has a population of almost 28 million, with one of the highest foreign-born populations in the world. It is highly urbanised, with most people living on the eastern seaboard in cities like Sydney and Melbourne. The population is also ageing, with the number of people over 65 projected to double by 2057.
Australia has a highly developed and strong economy, with one of the highest per capita incomes globally. It has abundant natural resources and a well-developed international trade network. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, Australia recorded 28 straight years of annual economic growth.
Australia has a diverse and multicultural culture, with a wide variety of landscapes and climates. It has a proud history of democracy and a stable government. Since the 1960s, the government has worked towards reconciliation with Indigenous Australians, who have lived on and managed the land for over 60,000 years.
