Leslie Massey
Australia has transformed from a monocultural, British-oriented society to one of the world's most multicultural societies. The country's history is filled with attempts to shape and reshape policies and attitudes towards cultural diversity and immigration. The White Australia Policy, introduced in 1901, gave preference to British migrants over others and was not entirely dismantled until the 1970s. Postwar immigration, including large numbers of Italians, Germans, Greeks, and Poles, marked a significant cultural shift. The 1970s saw the emergence of multiculturalism as a major political priority, with the implementation of official national multicultural policies and the establishment of the Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs. Australia continues to attract a significant proportion of skilled migrants, contributing to its economic growth and peaceful society. However, critics have argued that multiculturalism has encouraged cultural separatism and that the promotion of diversity poses a long-term threat to individual liberty and social cohesion.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Immigration policies | The White Australia Policy was introduced in 1901 and dismantled in the 1970s. |
| The Migration Act of 1958 put an end to the exclusion of non-European migrants. | |
| The 1973 Universal Migration Policy, implemented by Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, marked the beginning of a culturally diverse society. | |
| Population growth | Australia's population almost doubled from 7 million to 13 million between 1945 and 1960. |
| By 1961, 8% of the population was not of British origin, with Italians, Germans, Greeks, and Poles forming the largest migrant groups. | |
| In 2011, the Australian Bureau of Statistics estimated the resident population to be over 22 million, with about 25% born overseas. | |
| In 2015, an estimated 28% of the population was born overseas, ranking Australia first among OECD nations with populations over 10 million. | |
| In 2021, the area with the highest proportion of overseas-born population was western Sydney, with 61.7%. | |
| Education | Children of immigrants attain better average results than children of native-born Australians, indicating successful integration. |
| Economy | Australia attracts a significant proportion of skilled migrants, contributing to economic growth and filling labour gaps. |
| Political support | The 1975 Racial Discrimination Act signalled bipartisan political support for multiculturalism. |
| The Hawke government's National Agenda for a Multicultural Australia in 1989 had bipartisan support. | |
| Surveys by the Scanlon Foundation since 2013 show consistently positive attitudes towards immigration, with 83-86% indicating that multiculturalism has benefited Australia. | |
| Criticisms | Critics argue that multiculturalism was introduced without public support or consultation. |
| Concerns have been raised about threats to social cohesion and the potential strain on the political system. | |
| Opposition to immigration and multiculturalism policies led to the formation of the anti-immigrant One Nation Party in the late 1990s. |
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What You'll Learn
Postwar immigration
The postwar years marked a significant cultural shift in Australia, transforming the country from a monocultural, British-oriented society to one of the world's most multicultural societies. From 1945 to 1960, Australia's population nearly doubled, increasing from 7 million to 13 million, with an average annual growth rate of 2.7%. By 1961, 8% of the population was not of British origin, with Italians, Germans, Greeks, and Poles forming the largest migrant groups. This influx of migrants contributed to a more diverse and vibrant Australia, setting the stage for its future as a multicultural nation.
During the postwar period, Australia's immigration policies began to evolve, gradually moving away from the restrictive White Australia Policy, which had been in place since 1901. The White Australia Policy, a response to anxieties over Chinese immigration during the gold rush of the 19th century, favoured British migrants and promoted a racist view of the world. However, in the mid-1950s, the Australian government started to relax this policy, allowing non-European migrants to apply for citizenship and ending the exclusion of non-Europeans under the Migration Act of 1958.
The Migration Act of 1966, introduced by Prime Minister Harold Holt, was a significant milestone. This act allowed non-Europeans with professional and academic qualifications to apply for entry, effectively ending the White Australia Policy. Migrants were now selected based on their skills and ability to contribute to Australian society rather than their ethnicity. This act also fostered closer ties with other countries, particularly in Asia, and paved the way for a more culturally diverse Australia.
In the 1970s, Australia witnessed a significant turning point in its official immigration policies. The new Labor government, led by Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, implemented the Universal Migration Policy in 1973, marking the beginning of a culturally diverse society. That same decade, the White Australia Policy was officially abandoned, and Australia began embracing the virtues of a multicultural immigration policy. This bipartisan approach, supported by both major political parties, played a crucial role in Australia's transformation.
The postwar immigration program, which included the intake of displaced persons and refugees from European countries, provided an economic boost to Australia. It successfully increased the country's population, contributing to its labour force and curbing the ageing of the population. Australia's successful integration of immigrants has been a key factor in its multicultural success, with children of immigrants attaining better average educational results than children of native-born Australians.
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The White Australia Policy
Australia's history is filled with attempts to shape and reshape policies and attitudes towards cultural diversity and immigration. The country has gone from a "'White Australia' to a multicultural nation.
> This country shall remain forever the home of the descendants of those people who came here in peace in order to establish in the South Seas an outpost of the British race.
Similarly, Labor leader H. V. Evatt said in 1945:
> You have always insisted on the right to determine the composition of your own people. Australia wants that right now. What you are attempting to do now, Japan attempted after the last war [the First World War] and was prevented by Australia. Had we opened New Guinea and Australia to Japanese immigration then the Pacific War by now might have ended disastrously and we might have had another shambles like that experienced in Malaya.
In the postwar years, Australia's population almost doubled, from 7 million to 13 million, with an annual growth rate of 2.7%. By 1961, 8% of the population was not of British origin, with the largest migrant groups being Italians, Germans, Greeks, and Poles.
In the mid-1950s, the Australian government began to relax its White Australia Policy, allowing non-European migrants to apply for citizenship. This was followed by the abolition of the dictation test under the Migration Act of 1958, which ended the exclusion of non-European migrants.
The most significant change came in 1966, with Prime Minister Harold Holt's introduction of the Migration Act 1966, which allowed non-Europeans with professional and academic qualifications to apply for entry. This effectively ended the White Australia Policy, with migrants now being selected based on their skills and ability to contribute to Australian society, rather than ethnicity.
The 1970s marked a significant turning point in official immigration policies, moving away from assimilation policies that expected new arrivals to adopt Australian customs and culture. In 1973, the new Labor government, led by Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, implemented the Universal Migration Policy, heralding the beginning of a culturally diverse society.
In 1975, at a ceremony proclaiming the Racial Discrimination Act 1975, the Prime Minister referred to Australia as a "multicultural nation". This was the first time multiculturalism was acknowledged as a major political priority on both sides of politics.
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Multiculturalism as official policy
Australia's shift from a monocultural society to a multicultural one was not without its challenges. The country's history is filled with attempts to shape and reshape policies and attitudes towards cultural diversity and immigration.
The critics of multiculturalism as official policy in Australia include philosophers, sociologists, and political scientists. Lachlan Chipman, Frank Knopfelmacher, and Raymond Sestito were concerned about threats to social cohesion. Tanya Birrell, a sociologist, argued that multiculturalism obscured the social costs of large-scale immigration, which disproportionately affected recent immigrants with fewer skills. Sestito's arguments focused on the role of political parties, claiming that multicultural policies would strain the political system.
Despite these criticisms, in 1975, the Prime Minister referred to Australia as a "multicultural nation" during a ceremony proclaiming the Racial Discrimination Act 1975. This marked the first time that multiculturalism was recognised as a major political priority across the political spectrum.
In 1977, the Australian Ethnic Affairs Council, appointed to advise the Fraser Liberal-Country Party Government, recommended a public policy of multiculturalism in its report "Australia as a Multicultural Society." This led to the implementation of the first official national multicultural policies by the Fraser government in 1978, aligning with the Galbally Report's recommendations regarding government programs and services for migrants.
In 1979, an Act of Parliament established the Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs (AIMA). AIMA's objectives included promoting cultural diversity, social cohesion, understanding, and tolerance.
The Hawke government's National Agenda for a Multicultural Australia in 1989 was another significant milestone. It was developed through community consultations and the Advisory Council for Multicultural Affairs (ACMA) and enjoyed bipartisan political support.
In the 1990s, the Howard government sought to reframe multiculturalism by emphasising the idea of the 'nation' and the duties of all Australians, including new settlers, to commit to core Australian values. This approach was intended to address concerns about social cohesion and the potential threat posed by promoting all cultures as equal.
While Australia has been recognised as a successful multicultural country, recent events, such as the eruption of pro-Palestinian and antisemitic protests in 2023, have raised questions about the effectiveness of its multiculturalism model in fostering social cohesion and tolerance.
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The Migration Act 1966
The Migration Act 1958 has been amended several times, including in 1966, 1983, 1989, 1992, 2001, 2014, and 2018. Here is a focus on the Migration Act 1966:
The 1970s saw a further shift in immigration policies, with the Labor government, led by Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, implementing the Universal Migration Policy in 1973. This policy signalled the official end of the White Australia policy and the beginning of a culturally diverse Australia. By the 1970s, Australia had begun to embrace the virtues of a multicultural immigration policy, attracting skilled migrants and promoting social cohesion between different ethnicities and cultural groups. This bipartisan policy has contributed to Australia's strong economy and peaceful society, making it a successful multicultural nation.
The Migration Act has continued to undergo amendments over the years, with the 1983 amendment substituting the word "immigrant" with "non-citizen," removing entry restrictions for Australian citizens from external territories. In 1989, the Migration Legislation Amendment Act created a system for managing "unlawful boat arrivals." More recently, in 2014, a character test was introduced for visa applicants, and in 2018, a bill was proposed to strengthen this character test, although it did not pass. These amendments reflect Australia's evolving immigration policies and ongoing efforts to manage migration effectively.
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Social cohesion
Australia's transition to a multicultural country has been a complex process, marked by significant shifts in immigration policies and public attitudes. While the country has been praised as a multicultural success story, there have also been concerns and challenges along the way, particularly regarding social cohesion.
Historically, Australia's immigration policies, such as the White Australia Policy, prioritised British migrants and restricted immigration based on race. This policy was in place from 1901 until the 1970s, when it was gradually dismantled, marking a crucial turning point. The Migration Act of 1966, introduced by Prime Minister Harold Holt, allowed non-Europeans with professional qualifications to apply for entry, signalling a move towards skill-based immigration rather than ethnicity.
The 1970s witnessed a bipartisan embrace of multiculturalism, with both the government and opposition prioritising it. This led to the establishment of institutions like the Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs (AIMA), which aimed to promote social cohesion, understanding, and tolerance. The country's migration program in the years 2016-17 comprised 67.3% skilled migrants, and in 2015, 28% of the Australian population was born overseas, the highest proportion since the end of the 19th century.
However, critics of multiculturalism in Australia, including academics and politicians, have expressed concerns about social cohesion. Philosopher Lachlan Chipman worried about threats to social cohesion, while sociologist Tanya Birrell highlighted the social costs of large-scale immigration on recent arrivals and unskilled immigrants. Political scientist Raymond Sestito argued that multicultural policies could strain the political system. The eruption of pro-Palestinian and antisemitic protests in 2023 and the emergence of identity politics have also challenged social cohesion, with some arguing that multiculturalism has encouraged cultural separatism.
Despite these challenges, Australia has consistently ranked as one of the most receptive countries to immigration, with positive attitudes towards multiculturalism among its citizens. The country has successfully integrated immigrant students, as evidenced by their educational attainment, and has attracted skilled migrants, contributing to its strong economy. Australia's multiculturalism has been described as a "brain gain," indicating the benefits of its diverse and skilled immigrant population.
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Frequently asked questions
Australia has a long history of cultural diversity, dating back to the arrival of the first Europeans. Between 1945 and 1960, Australia's population almost doubled, with the country welcoming migrants from Italy, Germany, Greece, and Poland. The post-war migration program, which included the intake of refugees and displaced persons from Europe, marked a significant cultural shift towards a more multicultural society.
Australia's migration policies have played a significant role in shaping its multicultural society. The White Australia Policy, introduced in 1901, prioritized British migrants over others. However, this policy was gradually dismantled after World War II, with the Migration Act of 1958 ending the exclusion of non-European migrants. The 1970s marked a turning point, with the official adoption of multiculturalism as a major political priority, leading to the establishment of institutions like the Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs (AIMA).
Australia has faced several challenges in its journey towards multiculturalism. Critics have argued that multicultural policies were introduced without sufficient public consultation or support. There have also been concerns about social cohesion and the potential for cultural separatism. Additionally, the country has grappled with anti-immigration sentiments and the formation of the anti-immigrant One Nation Party in the late 1990s.
