Golden Time In Austria: A Magical Hour

Jordan Bauth, a 14-year-old figure skater from the United States, had a golden time in Austria at the inaugural Youth Olympic Games in Innsbruck. Bauth won a gold medal in the Team Figure Skating event and placed seventh in the short and freeskating programs. Aside from Bauth's recent success, Austria has historically had several golden ages. One notable period was between 1683 and 1718, when Austria experienced a surge of gains and established itself as a leading European power. This era was marked by military triumphs, such as the defence of Europe against the Ottomans, and the achievements of great Austrians like Eugene of Savoy, a renowned military leader.

The zenith of imperial Austria

The period between 1683 and 1718 was characterised by significant military achievements under the leadership of Eugene of Savoy, widely regarded as Austria's best general in history. Notable victories include repelling the Ottomans on two occasions and emerging triumphant against formidable foes such as Frederick the Great and Napoleon. The Austrian forces played a crucial role in the defeat of Napoleon, forcing him to sign the Treaty of Pressburg, which undermined his enemies' Grand Alliance.

Vienna, the capital, flourished as a leading cultural hub in Europe. The city's cultural significance was particularly evident in the realm of baroque music, which flourished and spread its influence well into the 18th and 19th centuries.

The Habsburg-Bourbon rivalry

The roots of the rivalry can be traced back to the 15th century when the Habsburgs sought to expand their territories through strategic marriages and alliances. In 1477, the marriage of Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg and Mary, the last Valois ruler of Burgundy, brought the Burgundian Netherlands into the Habsburg realm. This was followed by the union of their son, Philip the Handsome, with Joanna of Castile, which added Spain to the Habsburg domains. As a result, France found itself encircled by Habsburg territories, with Spain to the south, the Netherlands to the north, and the Franche-Comté to the east.

The encirclement of France by Habsburg powers was a constant source of tension and conflict between the two houses. This rivalry led to several wars, including parts of the Anglo-French Wars, the War of the Burgundian Succession, the Italian Wars, the Thirty Years' War, the Nine Years' War, and various succession wars. The Italian Wars, in particular, were fought between 1494 and 1559, with Italy serving as the main battleground for European supremacy between the two powers.

The rivalry continued into the 17th century, with France taking advantage of the Thirty Years' War to distress the Habsburgs. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 abolished Habsburg sovereignty over the northern Netherlands and restricted the emperor's authority over other German princes. However, the Habsburgs still managed to convert the Bohemian and Hungarian crowns into hereditary ones for their dynasty.

By the late 17th century, the rise of the Bourbon dynasty and the decline of Spanish power shifted the balance of power. The War of the Grand Alliance (1689-1697) saw rising powers like the Dutch and English, who had once encouraged a feeble France against Habsburg Spain, now supporting the Habsburgs against Louis XIV of France.

In the 18th century, the rivalry evolved as Spain's power waned, and Austria faced new challenges from rising powers like Prussia and Russia. The Habsburg-Bourbon rivalry took a significant turn with the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, when Austria and France formed an alliance for the first time in over two centuries, sealed by the marriage of Austrian princess Marie Antoinette to the future King Louis XVI of France. This shift in alliances was driven by a separation of interests between Austria and Britain, as well as a mutual desire to impede Prussian progress.

Despite the alliance, tensions and rivalries persisted, and the marriage of Marie Antoinette was not enough to erase centuries of enmity. The French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon further strained relations, with the Habsburgs in Austria seeking to destroy the Revolutionary Republic with the assistance of several monarchical coalitions. The ability of the Habsburgs to govern the Holy Roman Empire was weakened, leading to its dissolution and the formation of the Austrian Empire.

In summary, the Habsburg-Bourbon rivalry was a complex and lengthy struggle between two of Europe's most powerful houses, shaping the continent's political and military landscape for centuries. The rivalry was driven by territorial ambitions, border tensions, and shifting alliances, and it persisted even through periods of relative peace and diplomatic marriages.

Eugene of Savoy

The defence of Europe against the Ottomans in 1683 is often regarded as a highlight of Austrian power, and the zenith of imperial Austria. This period, from 1683 to the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, is considered the golden age of Austria.

One of the greatest military minds of his time, Eugene of Savoy was a key figure in this golden age. Eugene was born in Paris in 1663, the youngest son of the Comte de Soissons of the House of Savoy-Carignan, and Olympia Mancini, a niece of Cardinal Mazarin. Despite his unprepossessing appearance, Eugene was determined to pursue a military career. Rejected by Louis XIV, Eugene fled France and joined the army of Emperor Leopold I, cousin and rival of Louis XIV.

At 20, Eugene distinguished himself during the Ottomans Siege of Vienna in 1683, and soon after became a field marshal. In the Nine Years' War, he fought alongside his cousin, the Duke of Savoy. As commander-in-chief in Hungary, Eugene's decisive victory at the Battle of Zenta in 1697 ended the Ottoman threat for nearly 20 years. During the War of the Spanish Succession, he served Emperor Leopold I, achieving victories in Italy and forming a crucial partnership with the Duke of Marlborough, securing wins at Blenheim, Oudenaarde, and Malplaquet. Eugene's victories in Hungary secured the region from the Turks, and his other victories brought him fame and honour.

Eugene's battles were among the bloodiest of that period, and his marches the most exhausting. His decisions in difficult situations were daring and successful, and he is considered one of the greatest military commanders of his era. He served three emperors: Leopold I, Joseph I, and Charles VI. Worn out by his active career, Eugene died in 1736, leaving behind an immense fortune and a legacy as one of the most important patrons of his time.

The Diplomatic Revolution

The "Diplomatic Revolution" refers to the reversal of longstanding alliances in Europe that occurred in 1756 between the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War.

During this time, Austria went from being an ally of Britain to an ally of France, and Prussia became an ally of Britain. This shift in alliances was largely due to a separation of interests between Austria, Britain, and France, as well as a desire to preserve or upset the European balance of power.

The War of Austrian Succession, which lasted from 1740 to 1748, saw the traditional enemies of France, Great Britain, and Austria, coalesce. Prussia, the leading anti-Austrian state in Germany, was supported by France. However, neither group was satisfied with the partnership.

The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which ended the War of Austrian Succession, left Austria disappointed with the high price it paid to have Britain as an ally. Maria Theresa of Austria had successfully defended her claim to the Habsburg throne, and her husband, Francis Stephen, was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1745. However, she was forced to give up valuable territories, including part of the Duchy of Milan, occupied Bavaria, the Duchy of Parma, and the province of Silesia.

The situation in the Austrian Netherlands further contributed to the failure of the old system. During the War of the Austrian Succession, Dutch barrier fortresses in the Austrian Netherlands were captured by French armies, which subsequently ordered the dismantling of the captured barrier towns. This marked the end of the Dutch Republic as a major power, and Austria realised that Britain and the Dutch could no longer defend the Austrian Netherlands. As a result, Austria sought rapprochement with France to secure these territories.

The growth of Prussia, which posed an increasing threat to Austria's German lands and Central Europe, was welcomed by Britain as a means to balance French power. In the Westminster Convention of 1756, Britain and Prussia agreed that Britain would not aid Austria in a renewed conflict over Silesia if Prussia agreed to protect Hanover from France.

In response to the Westminster Convention, Austria sent its foreign policy minister, Count Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz, to France to secure an alliance and reclaim Silesia. This led to the First Treaty of Versailles in 1756, in which both sides agreed to remain neutral and provide 24,000 troops if either got into conflict with a third party.

Austria's actions, however, alerted Frederick II of Prussia, who decided to strike first by invading Saxony, commencing the Seven Years' War in 1756. In response, Russia sent 80,000 troops to Austria, and France and Austria signed the Second Treaty of Versailles in 1757, forming a new offensive alliance.

The Congress of Vienna

The Congress aimed to resize the main powers so they could balance and check each other and remain at peace while also serving as shepherds for smaller powers. Conservative leaders like Metternich also wanted to suppress republican, liberal, and revolutionary movements, which they saw as a threat to the constitutional order of the European ancien régime.

The new European order that emerged from the Congress was based on two main pillars. Firstly, the powers aspired to restore and safeguard a balance between them, reducing France to its 1792 borders while strengthening its neighbours. Secondly, the great powers would take common responsibility for maintaining peace and stability in Europe.

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