Bolivia's Role In Drug Trafficking: Complicity Or Combat?

Bolivia has become a strategic hub for cocaine trafficking. The country's geography has made it an asset for traffickers, and it is now a centre for drug trafficking in South America. Bolivia is the third-largest grower of coca bushes in the world, and its coca crops are used in the production of cocaine. The country's government has engaged in negotiations with the United States as a result of the industry's negative ramifications. While there has been some success in the struggle against drug trafficking, the resources deployed by the Bolivian state are no match for the potential profits in the drug trade.

Bolivia's coca leaf cultivation

Coca leaf cultivation has a long history in Bolivia, dating back to at least the Inca era. The coca plant, a tea-like shrub, is cultivated in the medium-altitude regions of the Bolivian Andes, particularly in the Yungas areas north and east of La Paz, and the Chapare region of Cochabamba.

Bolivia is currently the third-largest coca bush grower in the world. In 2019, coca cultivation in Bolivia increased by 10% compared to 2018, reaching 25,500 hectares. This trend continued in 2020, with a further increase in coca cultivation reported. The regions of the Yungas of La Paz, the Tropics of Cochabamba, and the North of La Paz are the main coca-growing areas in the country.

The control of coca leaf production in Bolivia lies with the Quechua and Aymara indigenous peasant producers, who are part of an Andean agrarian civilization with a long history. For them, the coca leaf is not just a staple crop but also a powerful symbol of cultural, religious, and medicinal identity. The coca leaf is used daily for sustenance and various health remedies. Chewing the sacred coca leaf is an integral part of social interaction and religious rituals for millions of native people in Bolivia and other countries like Peru, Colombia, and Brazil.

The Bolivian government has had a complex relationship with coca leaf cultivation. On the one hand, coca was the country's most lucrative crop in the 1980s, contributing significantly to the economy. On the other hand, the Bolivian government has also faced pressure from the United States and other international actors to eradicate coca cultivation due to its role in the illicit drug trade. Coca leaves are processed clandestinely into cocaine, and Bolivia was once the second-largest supplier of coca leaves to the United States, providing about 15% of their cocaine market in the late 1980s.

Government efforts to eradicate coca cultivation began in 1983, with a five-year program to reduce coca production. However, these efforts had limited success and were highly controversial among peasants. The economics of eradication was challenging, as the destruction of coca crops led to an increase in local prices, making it more attractive for other growers to enter the market. Additionally, the alternative crops offered, such as coffee and citrus fruits, had significantly lower returns and were harder to sell and transport.

In recent years, the Bolivian government, led by President Evo Morales, has pursued a more nuanced approach. Morales, himself a former cocalero union leader, has implemented a policy of legalizing coca production in specific regions, like the Chapare and Yungas, while focusing on eradication elsewhere. This strategy has shown some success, with coca cultivation decreasing by 12% in 2011. Additionally, the Bolivian government has collaborated with international organizations like the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) to promote alternative development programs that provide income generation and environmental protection activities to tackle poverty.

The country's geographic advantage for traffickers

Bolivia's geography has proven advantageous for drug traffickers in several ways. Firstly, the country's coca leaf cultivation, authorised on 22,000 hectares, is a significant contributor to the drug trade. While coca leaf is traditionally consumed for medicinal or cultural reasons, Bolivia has become a leading manufacturer of cocaine in recent years. The country's coca bush cultivation, concentrated in the Yungas and Chapare areas, plays a key role in this transformation.

Secondly, Bolivia's geographical location has made it a "strategic hub" for cocaine trafficking. The reorganisation of drug trafficking routes has turned the country into a key transit point for illicit substances. This shift has made Bolivia a central player in the global drug trade, with its territory serving as a conduit for the movement of narcotics.

Additionally, Bolivia's terrain features areas such as the Chapare region, which has been associated with former President Evo Morales, a former grower and head of the powerful regional cocalero union. This region has been identified as a significant source of coca leaf for the drug trade, with its leaves described as larger, harder, and more irritating to the tongue, making them more suitable for cocaine processing.

The country's eastern region is also marked by the presence of hundreds of clandestine airstrips, which facilitate the transportation of drugs and the movement of unidentified aircraft. This infrastructure enables drug traffickers to operate with greater ease and discretion, utilising these remote locations for their illicit activities.

Furthermore, Bolivia's proximity to other South American countries, such as Colombia and Brazil, has likely contributed to the drug trade. The influence of Colombian cartels and the presence of extensive international drug-trafficking organisations involving individuals from these countries underscore the role that regional connections play in the trafficking operations.

The role of the Colombian drug trade

Colombia's role in the international drug trade has evolved over the decades, from a marijuana grower/exporter in the 1970s to a processor/shipper of cocaine in the 1980s, and now a major grower/processor/transporter of coca and heroin. In the 1970s, Colombia's Atlantic Coast experienced a boom in marijuana cultivation, creating a new class of wealthy traffickers supplying the US market. The country's new cartels, first in Medellin and then in Cali, emerged and expanded into cocaine processing and export.

Colombia's powerful drug kingpins and their empires came to control the billion-dollar cocaine industry, processing coca leaves grown primarily in Bolivia and Peru. The Medellin Cartel, led by Pablo Escobar, was particularly ruthless, waging war on the Colombian government and killing hundreds of government officials, journalists, and public figures. The drug industry's power and violence permeated all facets of Colombian society, with drug lords achieving unprecedented political influence through threats, bribery, and political contributions.

The coca leaves imported from Bolivia and Peru were processed into cocaine inside Colombia and then distributed through trafficking routes and distribution points in the US, including Florida, California, and New York. The Medellin Cartel's influence on the trade was eventually countered by pressure from the US and Colombian governments, leading to the cartel's destruction.

While Colombia's role in coca production and cocaine processing has been significant, Bolivia has also played a crucial part in the industry. In the 1980s, Bolivia was the second-largest grower of coca in the world, supplying approximately 15% of the US cocaine market during that period. The coca plant has been grown in Bolivia for centuries, with small farmers in the Chapare and Yungas regions cultivating it. The lucrative nature of the coca crop, coupled with soaring unemployment and economic challenges, contributed to its widespread cultivation in Bolivia.

The involvement of Colombian cartels, such as the Medellin Cartel, in Bolivia's drug trade has had a significant impact. The importation of Colombian-style drug violence, with hired assassins and drug barons establishing fiefdoms, has been a concerning aspect of this influence. The power of these cartels and their ability to corrupt and intimidate local authorities have further exacerbated the issue.

While Colombia's role in the international drug trade has evolved, and its production of coca has decreased in recent years, it continues to be a significant player in the industry, influencing the trade in Bolivia and beyond.

Brazil's booming drug market

Brazil's Role in Drug Trafficking

Brazil is a significant player in the global drug trade, particularly as a transit country for drug trafficking from Latin America to Europe, Africa, and Asia. According to the 2018 UNODC report, Brazil was the second most mentioned country of origin for cocaine seizures in Europe and the top-mentioned country for seizures on the African continent and in the Middle East and Asia. This prominent position in the drug trade has had a profound impact on Brazil's internal drug market and criminal landscape.

Criminal Organisations and Networks

The development of Brazil's drug market is closely tied to the activities of criminal organisations and networks, both domestic and international. The Primeiro Comando da Capital (PCC), the country's most powerful gang, controls the infamous Crackland, an open-air drug market in downtown São Paulo. The PCC's involvement in drug trafficking extends beyond Brazil's borders, with connections to Colombian and Mexican cartels, as well as Nigerian criminal networks.

Socioeconomic Factors

Brazil's socioeconomic conditions have also played a role in the proliferation of the drug market. The country has experienced macroeconomic deceleration, with flat or negative GDP growth rates in recent years. This has contributed to stagnant growth in the middle class and a reduction in disposable income. As a result, there may be increased involvement in the drug trade as a means of economic survival. Additionally, an ageing population and the rise of chronic diseases have led to greater demand for healthcare products and services, which can be exploited by the drug market.

Government Responses

The Brazilian government has implemented various strategies to combat the drug trade and its impacts. Police crackdowns in Crackland, for instance, have led to the arrest of prominent traffickers and the dispersal of users and dealers. However, these efforts have also faced challenges, as the drug market adapts and moves to new locations, affecting different neighbourhoods and businesses.

International Connections

Brazil's drug market is deeply interconnected with other countries and regions. As mentioned earlier, Brazilian criminal organisations have forged alliances with Latin American cartels and West African elites to facilitate the transnational drug trade. Additionally, the country has become a hub for drug exports, with ports such as Santos, Paranagua, Itajai, and Rio Grande playing a crucial role in the export of cocaine from Peru and Bolivia.

Future Projections

Analysts predict that Brazil's pharmaceutical market will grow by 7-10% per year until 2020, with the retail market expected to be the strongest segment. However, challenges such as higher drug development costs, excessive protectionism, poor infrastructure, and a shortage of skilled professionals may hinder this growth.

The impact of Bolivia's political landscape

Bolivia is the third-largest grower of coca bushes in the world, with 31,000 hectares of land being used for coca bush cultivation in 2010. Coca has been grown in Bolivia for centuries, and in the 1980s, it was the country's most lucrative crop and economic activity. The coca plant is used in the production of cocaine, and the drug trade has had a significant impact on Bolivia's political landscape.

Historically, the Bolivian government has made efforts to eradicate coca cultivation, beginning in 1983 with a five-year program to reduce coca production. However, these efforts had limited success and were controversial among peasants. In the late 1980s, Bolivia began to witness the negative effects of drug trafficking, including the presence of armed criminal groups, corruption within security agencies and courts, and the growing control of the media by narcotics traffickers.

In recent years, there has been an internal dispute within the ruling party, with former President Evo Morales accusing his successor, Luis Arce, of protecting drug traffickers. Despite the government's denial, there is evidence of institutional involvement in drug trafficking, with at least thirty police officers implicated between 2022 and 2023.

The anti-drug fight in Bolivia has been undertaken with a focus on sovereignty and non-interventionism during the 18 years of the MAS government. In 2008, President Morales expelled the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, accusing them of financing a coup attempt. However, the changing nature of drug trafficking requires a more integrated and transnational approach, including multidisciplinary agreements and coordinated actions between countries.

Bolivia's current anti-drug strategy focuses on voluntary participation from coca growers, allowing them to cultivate a limited amount of coca per year. This strategy has led to a decrease in coca cultivation, with a 12% reduction between 2010 and 2011. However, critics argue that the plan lacks a focus on trafficking organizations.

In conclusion, the impact of Bolivia's political landscape on drug trafficking is complex. While the government has made efforts to eradicate coca cultivation and combat drug trafficking, there are also indications of institutional involvement and a lack of commitment to transnational cooperation. The internal disputes within the ruling party and the ongoing power struggle between former President Morales and President Arce further complicate the country's anti-drug efforts.

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