The Evolution Of Afghanistan's Hybrid System: A Blend Of Presidential And Parliamentary Models

Afghanistan has had a tumultuous political history, with frequent coups, civil wars, and violent transfers of power. The country has been governed by various systems, including a monarchy, republic, theocracy, dictatorship, and a pro-communist state.

Since the Taliban seized power in 2021, Afghanistan has been governed as a totalitarian emirate within an Islamic theocracy, with all power concentrated in the hands of the supreme leader and his clerical advisors. The current government is self-described as interim and lacks a clear constitution or any basis for the rule of law.

Prior to the Taliban's return to power, Afghanistan functioned as an Islamic republic with a presidential system. The president was elected by an absolute majority vote through a two-round system and served as the head of state, with power over the military and legislative affairs. The country had a bicameral legislature, consisting of a lower house (Wolesi Jirga) and an upper house (House of Elders).

The Wolesi Jirga, or lower house, was directly elected by the people through a single non-transferable vote (SNTV) system. The House of Elders, on the other hand, had a mix of elected and appointed members, with 34 members elected by regional legislatures, 34 elected by regional legislatures for shorter terms, and 34 appointed by the president.

While Afghanistan has held democratic elections throughout the 20th century, the electoral process has often been marred by accusations of fraud, low voter turnout, and security concerns.

Afghanistan's government is a hybrid system

The most recent iteration of the Afghan government, prior to the Taliban takeover in 2021, was established in 2004 with the adoption of a new constitution. This constitution, which evolved from the Afghan Constitution mandated by the 2001 Bonn Agreement, restructured the government as an Islamic republic with a directly elected president and a two-house legislature.

The president, who serves as the head of state and holds power over the military and legislative affairs, is elected by an absolute majority vote through a two-round system. The vice president holds the second-highest political position and is appointed by the president, then elected by a direct popular vote.

The legislature consists of the Wolesi Jirga (House of People) and the Meshrano Jirga (House of Elders). The Wolesi Jirga, or lower house, holds the real power and is responsible for creating and ratifying laws, as well as approving the actions of the president. Members of the Wolesi Jirga are elected through a single non-transferable vote (SNTV) system, which discourages the development of disciplined political parties.

The Meshrano Jirga, or upper house, has primarily an advisory role and some veto power. It consists of 102 members: 34 elected by regional legislatures for four-year terms, 34 elected by regional legislatures for shorter three-year terms, and 34 elected by the president for longer five-year terms.

While Afghanistan's government structure includes elements of a presidential system, such as a directly elected president with substantial powers, it also incorporates aspects of a parliamentary system. The presence of a two-house legislature, with the lower house having significant influence over legislation and cabinet appointments, reflects the hybrid nature of Afghanistan's political system.

The country has a history of unstable government

Afghanistan has been unstable for decades, with frequent coups, civil wars, and violent transfers of power. The country has been governed by various systems of government, including a monarchy, republic, theocracy, dictatorship, and a pro-communist state.

The country's history of instability can be traced back to the 1970s, when a communist revolution established a socialist state, and subsequent infighting prompted the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan in 1979. Mujahideen fought against the Soviets in the Soviet–Afghan War and continued fighting amongst themselves following the Soviets' withdrawal in 1989. The Islamic fundamentalist Taliban controlled most of the country by 1996, but their Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan received little international recognition before its overthrow in the 2001 US invasion of Afghanistan.

The Taliban returned to power in 2021 after capturing Kabul and overthrowing the government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, thus bringing an end to the 2001–2021 war.

The Taliban's government is totalitarian

Afghanistan's government under the Taliban is a totalitarian emirate within an Islamic theocracy. The Taliban Movement, a Sunni Islamist, pro-Pashtun group, holds a monopoly on power, with all authority concentrated in the hands of the supreme leader and his clerical advisors. Dissent is not permitted, and politics are largely limited to internal Taliban policy debates and power struggles.

The Taliban's rule is characterised by strict interpretations of Sharia law, with policies that are often merciless in their treatment of women, political opponents, and religious minorities. The group has a long history of violence, including suicide bombings, and has been designated a terrorist organisation.

Since seizing power in 2021, the Taliban have swiftly reinstated harsh policies, suppressing free speech and organised political activity, and pushing women out of public life. They have banned women from long-distance travel without a male chaperone and prohibited them from working in most fields. Girls have been barred from attending secondary school, and women have been banned from teaching at universities.

The Taliban's government lacks a clear constitution or any basis for the rule of law. The country is governed by decree, with Taliban judges and fighters deciding how to apply Sharia law on the spot. The group has a history of viewing the Quran as its constitution, and while they have suggested a new constitution will be drafted, they have taken few steps in that direction.

The Taliban's political system is described by one analyst as "highly underspecified and undertheorized". The group refers to their government as the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, with a supreme leader, the emir, believed to be endowed by God with authority over all affairs of state and society. The emir, Sheikh Haibatullah Akhundzada, is based in Kandahar and has increasingly overruled cabinet ministers on various issues, consolidating his power.

The Taliban's rule has resulted in a centralised and streamlined system of taxation and revenue collection. However, the economy has largely collapsed due to the withdrawal of foreign aid, and the group has demonstrated little ability to address the ensuing humanitarian crisis.

The Taliban's takeover has also led to a rollback of gains in Afghans' standards of living. Malnutrition has soared, hundreds of thousands of jobs have been lost, and the country's security situation remains precarious, with violence perpetrated by both the Taliban and other terrorist groups such as the Islamic State in Khorasan.

In summary, the Taliban government in Afghanistan exhibits clear totalitarian characteristics, with power concentrated in the hands of a supreme leader, suppression of dissent, strict interpretations of religious law, and a lack of respect for human rights and civil liberties.

The Taliban's government is also an Islamic theocracy

Afghanistan has been governed by various systems, including a monarchy, republic, theocracy, dictatorship, and a pro-communist state. The Taliban, a Sunni Islamist nationalist and pro-Pashtun movement, seized power in 2021 and re-formed the government to implement a stricter interpretation of Sharia law. The Taliban government is a totalitarian emirate within an Islamic theocracy, with all power concentrated in the hands of the supreme leader, Hibatullah Akhundzada, and his clerical advisors.

The Taliban's government is self-described as "interim", ruling by decree, and lacking a clear constitution or basis for the rule of law. The Taliban views the Quran as its constitution and has historically considered the 1964 monarchy constitution, which granted immense powers to the King, as a framework for governance. The group has also expressed intentions to form a constitutional commission and draft a new constitution, stating that it would be done through an open consultative process and include input from Islamic scholars (ulema).

The Taliban's interpretation and enforcement of Sharia law have resulted in human rights violations and the rollback of rights and freedoms, particularly for women and minority groups. The Taliban has banned girls from attending secondary school and university and prohibited women from working, teaching, and studying at universities. Additionally, the group has cracked down on press freedoms, restricted free speech, and violently suppressed demonstrations and dissent. The Taliban's policies and actions reflect an Islamic theocratic system of governance, characterized by autocracy, totalitarianism, and the exclusion of those with dissenting views.

The current Taliban leadership, aided by religious scholars and government officials, has consolidated power and silenced internal critics. The government operates through a Leadership Council (Rahbari Shura), which assists the supreme leader with governance and appoints individuals to key positions within the cabinet. The Taliban's model of governance concentrates power in the hands of the supreme leader and a small circle of trusted associates, indicating that Afghanistan under Taliban rule is an Islamic theocracy.

The Taliban's government is interim

The Taliban's political system has been described as "highly underspecified and undertheorized" by a legal analyst. Since taking power, the Taliban has only offered vague statements that they will rule in accordance with "Islamic law and Afghan values" without spelling out the legal or political principles that guide their rules and behaviours. They have emphasised that their government is interim, but it is unclear when a final government will be established.

The Taliban's interim government is dominated by the old guard of the Taliban and hardliners. Mohammad Hassan Akhund, who is considered a hardliner, is the head of Afghanistan's interim government. Abdul Ghani Baradar, who led talks with the US, is now one of two deputies to the prime minister. Mullah Mohammad Yaqoob, the son of Mullah Omar (the founder of the Taliban), is the interim defence minister. Sirajuddin Haqqani, who is on the FBI's most-wanted list, has been named the interim interior minister.

The Taliban's interim government does not appear to be inclusive, despite calls from the US and its allies for an inclusive government. There are no women in the government, and it is dominated by the Pashtun ethnic group, with only a small number of Tajiks, Uzbeks, a Turkmen, a Hazara, a Nuristani, and a Khwaja. The Taliban has resisted calls to include women or figures from the previous Western-backed political establishment, citing concerns of a backlash from their rank and file, who might view the leadership as betraying their ideals.

The Taliban has emphasised that their appointments are temporary, but it is unclear how long they will serve or what will prompt a change. The group has shown no indications that they plan to hold elections, and Afghanistan currently functions without a clear constitution or any basis for the rule of law.

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