The Thumb Gesture: Cultural Significance In Afghanistan

Afghanistan has been a country of interest for empire builders for millennia, owing to its location along important trade routes connecting southern and eastern Asia to Europe and the Middle East. The country's landscape, which includes the formidable Hindu Kush mountain range, has been a challenge for many imperial ambitions. The modern boundaries of Afghanistan were established in the late 19th century as a result of rivalry between imperial Britain and tsarist Russia, a contest that Rudyard Kipling termed the Great Game. Today, Afghanistan is a multiethnic, landlocked country in south-central Asia, with a rich history and a diverse population.

The Taliban's impact on women's rights in Afghanistan

During their first rule from 1996 to 2001, the Taliban gained an international reputation for their misogyny and human rights abuses, particularly towards women and girls. Women were banned from education and work, prohibited from leaving their homes without a male chaperone, and forced to wear full-body coverings (burqas) in public. Those who violated these rules risked punishment, including flogging and execution. The Taliban's interpretation of Islamic Sharia law allowed men to commit acts of domestic violence and even kill their female family members with impunity.

In the years following the Taliban's ouster in 2001, Afghanistan made some progress towards gender equality. Girls' schools reopened, women went back to work, and women's rights were enshrined in the new constitution. However, discrimination against women remained prevalent in society, and in 2011, Afghanistan was named 'the most dangerous country' for women.

When the Taliban returned to power in August 2021, women and girls once again faced a rollback of their rights. Despite initial claims of leniency, the Taliban quickly imposed restrictions on education, employment, and mobility for women. Girls were banned from attending secondary school, and women were blocked from most sectors of employment outside of health and education. Women were also prohibited from travelling without a male relative and were ordered to wear face coverings in public.

The hard-fought gains in equality and human rights for Afghan women over the previous two decades are now being steadily dismantled by the Taliban. Women in Afghanistan, who have been at the forefront of fighting for their rights, fear a return to the 'dark days' of Taliban rule, with their futures looking increasingly bleak and restricted.

The Taliban's relationship with Uyghur refugees in Afghanistan

Uyghurs have historically fled to Afghanistan to escape religious and political persecution in China. They have settled all over Afghanistan and created new lives for themselves as Afghan citizens. However, their Afghan ID cards still say "Uyghur" or "Chinese refugee", which they fear could lead to their targeting and deportation if China exerts influence over the Taliban.

This fear is not unfounded. China has a history of pressuring other countries to forcibly return Uyghurs and has successfully rendered at least 395 Uyghurs since 1997. In addition, the Taliban has a history of cooperation with China and has recently pledged not to allow any groups harmful to China's interests to operate in Afghanistan.

Experts believe that the Taliban is likely to use Uyghurs as a bargaining chip to gain economic concessions and investment from China, putting the Uyghur refugees in Afghanistan at significant risk.

The Taliban's relationship with the US

The relationship between the Taliban and the US has been tumultuous, to say the least. The US has been involved in Afghanistan since the 1920s, but the relationship between the two countries has been defined by the US's involvement in the country since the 9/11 attacks.

Following the attacks, the US invaded Afghanistan to capture Osama bin Laden, overthrowing the Taliban government in the process. The US supported the new government of Afghan President Hamid Karzai, and the two countries resumed diplomatic ties in 2001. The US took the leading role in the reconstruction of Afghanistan, providing billions of dollars to the Afghan National Security Forces, building national roads, government and educational institutions.

In 2012, the US and Afghanistan signed a strategic partnership agreement, committing both nations to a long-term relationship. However, the relationship between the two countries began to sour as the Taliban gained momentum. In 2020, the US and the Taliban signed the Doha Agreement, which led to the withdrawal of US and Allied forces from Afghanistan.

Since the Taliban takeover in 2021, the US has shifted to a position of pragmatic engagement in Afghanistan. The US has not yet decided whether to recognize the Taliban as the official government of Afghanistan. The US continues to engage with the Taliban to ensure they abide by the commitments made in the Doha Agreement, including preventing any group or individual from using Afghanistan as a base to threaten the security of the US and its allies.

The US has also changed the nature and scope of its activities in Afghanistan to focus on humanitarian aid and targeted assistance to help meet basic human needs. The US remains the single largest donor of humanitarian assistance in Afghanistan.

The Taliban's relationship with China

China and Afghanistan have had diplomatic relations since the 18th century, but their trade relations date back to the Han dynasty. In the 20th century, China extended economic aid and multi-million-dollar loans to develop Afghanistan during the Cold War. However, the relationship was briefly interrupted after the Sino-Soviet split and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Since the withdrawal of Soviet troops, China-Afghan relations have improved significantly in the 21st century. China has become Afghanistan's largest trading partner and has given millions of dollars in aid. China's influence and diplomatic role in Afghanistan have also been growing over the years.

China has historically been concerned about security in Afghanistan, particularly the possibility of Uyghur militants using camps in Afghanistan as a base to launch attacks against China. In the early 2000s, Chinese workers were also killed and kidnapped in the country. China shares a remote but direct border with Afghanistan, and the increasing violence in the wider region has given China good reason to worry.

China has a history of contacts with the Taliban, dating back to when the group was in power in the 1990s. At the time, China was one of the few countries that engaged with the Taliban, though this was largely through China's contacts in Islamabad. In the early 2010s, China decided that the best way to manage a potential extremist threat from Afghanistan was to engage with the Taliban. In 2019, China facilitated secret talks between the Taliban and the Afghan government in Urumqi, the capital of Xinjiang.

China has also been concerned about Uyghur militants gaining a home base in Afghanistan. In 2014, Beijing escalated its engagement with the Afghan authorities and the Taliban, creating a two-pronged strategy to address this concern. On the one hand, China sought to broker greater discussions among the Taliban, Pakistan, and the Afghan government. On the other hand, it strengthened its contacts with the Taliban to ensure they maintained control over Uyghur groups.

In 2021, China signalled its willingness to work with a new Taliban-led government. The Chinese government is concerned about the possibility of Taliban support for militants in Xinjiang. China has become the first country to appoint an ambassador to Kabul since the Taliban took power, and it has invested in mining projects. However, China has not formally recognised the Taliban as the rulers of Afghanistan.

In 2023, China recognised a former Taliban spokesman as an official envoy to Beijing, becoming the first country in the world to do so since the Taliban seized power in 2021. Several Chinese companies also signed multiple business deals with the Taliban government, including a 25-year-long, multi-million-dollar oil extraction contract. China's pragmatic relationship with the Taliban is driven by security concerns and a desire to check militants that threaten its interests.

The Taliban's relationship with Pakistan

Historically, Pakistan has played a significant role in supporting the Taliban, particularly during the group's insurgency against the U.S.-backed government in Afghanistan. Pakistan's military and intelligence services, particularly the Inter-Services Intelligence Directorate (ISI), have provided training, funding, and logistical support to the Taliban. Pakistani private-sector actors have also contributed financial assistance. This support has been motivated by Pakistan's desire for "strategic depth," seeking to establish indirect control over Afghanistan and counter India's influence in the region. Additionally, the ideological connection between the two groups, rooted in their shared Islamist extremism, has been instrumental in Pakistan's control over the Taliban.

However, the dynamics between the Taliban and Pakistan have changed since the Taliban's takeover of Afghanistan in 2021. The Taliban's military victory has inspired Islamist and jihadist forces in Pakistan, challenging the Pakistani state's authority and stirring up religious fervor among its population. The Taliban's refusal to accept the Durand Line as the international border between the two countries has also led to frequent clashes and undermined trust.

The presence of the Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), also known as the Pakistani Taliban, has further complicated the relationship. The TTP, an anti-Pakistan insurgent group, has found safe haven in Afghanistan under the Taliban regime and intensified its attacks on Pakistani security forces. Pakistan's airstrikes targeting the TTP in Afghanistan have killed civilians and escalated tensions with the Taliban, who have threatened retaliation. The Taliban's failure to restrain the TTP has stunned Islamabad, which expected gratitude and cooperation from the Taliban due to their history of support.

The shifting dynamics between the Taliban and Pakistan have important implications for U.S. policymakers, particularly in addressing the growing terrorist threats in the region. Pakistan's deteriorating ties with the Taliban and the rise of Islamist militancy in its tribal areas highlight the complex nature of the relationship. While Pakistan has expressed its commitment to countering terrorist groups, including the TTP, its ambivalent stance on Islamist extremists and its manipulative Afghan policies continue to stoke tensions.

In conclusion, the Taliban's relationship with Pakistan is complex and dynamic. While Pakistan has been a key supporter of the Taliban, the group's rise to power in Afghanistan has created challenges and tensions between the two. The presence of the TTP and Pakistan's airstrikes in Afghanistan have further escalated the situation. The future of this relationship remains uncertain, with potential implications for regional security and stability.

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