How Prussia And Austria Influenced The French Revolution

The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of conflicts that arose from the tensions surrounding the French Revolution. The wars were fought between Revolutionary France and several European powers, most notably Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain. The wars are often divided into two stages: the War of the First Coalition (1792-1797) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802).

The wars were initially fought in defense of the French Revolution; however, they soon became wars of conquest. By 1802, the French Republic had conquered the Low Countries, northern Italy, and parts of the Rhineland. The wars also led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who seized control of France in 1799 and led the French to victory against the Second Coalition.

The War of the First Coalition (1792-1797)

The War of the First Coalition was fought between Revolutionary France and an alliance of European powers, including Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, Spain, and several others. The war was only loosely coordinated among the anti-French coalition, with each power seeking to appropriate a different part of France after a presumed victory.

In the spring of 1792, Austria and Prussia responded to France's declaration of war with a coordinated invasion. The French suffered early defeats, including the loss of Verdun in September 1792, which triggered the September massacres in Paris. However, the tide turned in favour of the French at the Battle of Valmy on 20 September 1792, where the invading coalition forces were halted. This victory boosted French morale and led to the proclamation of the French Republic on 22 September 1792.

The French counterattacked and pushed the Allied armies back, achieving notable victories such as the Battle of Fleurus in 1794, which secured the Austrian Netherlands and the Rhineland for France. The French established the Batavian Republic as a sister republic in May 1795 and gained Prussian recognition of their control over the Left Bank of the Rhine through the Peace of Basel.

In Italy, Napoleon Bonaparte began his first campaign in April 1796, leading the French to a series of victories over the Habsburg forces and evicting them from the Italian peninsula. By 1797, the First Coalition had collapsed, with only Britain remaining at war with France. The Treaty of Campo Formio, signed in October 1797, officially ended the War of the First Coalition.

The War of the First Coalition was a significant conflict that helped establish French hegemony on the European continent. It was followed by the War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802), continuing the series of conflicts known as the French Revolutionary Wars.

The War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802)

The War of the Second Coalition (1798/9–1801/2) was the second war targeting Revolutionary France by many European monarchies. Led by Britain, Austria, and Russia, the coalition also included the Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Naples, and various German monarchies. Prussia did not join the coalition, and Spain supported France. The overall goal of Britain and Russia was to contain the expansion of the French Republic and restore the monarchy in France. Austria, weakened and in deep financial debt from the War of the First Coalition, sought to recover its position and emerge from the war stronger than when it entered.

The Second Coalition was formed several months after the end of the War of the First Coalition. In October 1797, France and Austria, the signatories of the Treaty of Campo Formio, avoided armed conflict but remained skeptical of each other, and several diplomatic incidents undermined the agreement. The French demanded additional territory not mentioned in the Treaty, and the Habsburgs were reluctant to hand over designated territories, much less additional ones. The Congress at Rastatt proved inept at orchestrating the transfer of territories to compensate the German princes for their losses. Republicans in the Swiss Cantons, supported by the French Revolutionary Army, overthrew the central government in Bern and established the Helvetic Republic.

In the summer of 1798, Napoleon led an expedition to Egypt and Syria. On his way to Egypt, he stopped at the heavily fortified port city of Valletta, the capital of Hospitaller Malta. Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim, who ruled the island, allowed only two ships at a time in the harbour, in accordance with the island's neutrality. Napoleon immediately ordered the bombardment of Valletta, and on June 11, 1798, General Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers directed a landing of several thousand French troops at strategic locations around the island. The French Knights of the Order deserted, and the remaining Knights failed to mount a successful resistance. Napoleon forcibly removed the other Knights from their possessions, angering Emperor Paul I of Russia, who was the honorary head of the Order. Moreover, the French Directory was convinced that the Austrians were conniving to start another war. Indeed, the weaker the French Republic seemed, the more seriously the Austrians, Neapolitans, Russians, and British discussed this possibility.

The preliminary military action under the alliance occurred on November 29, 1798, when General Karl Mack, an Austrian serving Naples, occupied Rome, wishing to restore Papal authority with the Neapolitan army. King Ferdinand was pushed by his angry Austrian wife, Queen Maria Carolina, Marie Antoinette's sister, and by Horatio Nelson through his secret lover, the British Ambassador's wife, Emma, Lady Hamilton. All these companions became reckless gamblers when the poorly equipped and led Neapolitan army was not only soon defeated outside Rome and pushed back, but Naples itself was occupied by France on January 23. The king, the British officials, and the women had only time to escape to Sicily.

In Europe, the allies mounted several invasions, including campaigns in Italy and Switzerland and an Anglo-Russian invasion of the Netherlands. Russian General Alexander Suvorov inflicted a series of defeats on the French in Italy, driving them back to the Alps. The allies were less successful in the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland, where the British and Russians retreated after a defeat at Castricum, and in Switzerland, where, after initial victories, an Austro-Russian army was completely routed at the Second Battle of Zurich. These reverses, as well as British insistence on searching shipping in the Baltic Sea, led to Russia's withdrawal from the Coalition.

Napoleon invaded Syria from Egypt but retreated after a failed siege of Acre, repelling a British-Turkish invasion. Alerted to the political and military crisis in France, he returned, leaving his army behind, and used his popularity and army support to mount a coup that made him First Consul, the head of the French government.

In May 1800, Napoleon led his troops across the Alps through the Great St. Bernard Pass into Italy in a military campaign against the Austrians. He conducted the Siege of Fort Bard against the Sardinian and Austrian armies for two weeks, after which he was able to cross the Alps and enter Italy. He narrowly defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo. While the Austrians had a much larger force, Napoleon was able to organise a hurried retreat from the village before returning with reinforcements. The French successfully charged the Austrian flank with cavalry, and Napoleon negotiated for Austria to evacuate Piedmont, Liguria, and Lombardy.

In the German theatre, the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine at the beginning of 1800. Feldzeugmeister Pál Kray led approximately 120,000 troops. In addition to his Austrian regulars, his force included 12,000 men from the Electorate of Bavaria, 6,000 troops from the Duchy of Württemberg, 5,000 soldiers from the Electorate of Mainz, and 7,000 militiamen from the County of Tyrol. General of Division Jean Victor Marie Moreau commanded a modestly equipped army of 137,000 French troops, 108,000 of which were available for field operations. Moreau planned to cross the Rhine near Basel, where the river swung to the north. A French column distracted Kray from Moreau's true intentions by crossing the Rhine from the west. Through a series of complicated maneuvers, Moreau's army lay on the eastern slope of the Black Forest, while portions of Kray's army were still guarding the passes on the other side. On May 3, 1800, Moreau and Kray fought the Battles of Engen and Stockach. The fighting near Engen resulted in a stalemate with heavy losses on both sides. However, while the two main armies were engaged at Engen, Claude Lecourbe captured Stockach from its Austrian defenders. The loss of this main supply base compelled Kray to order a retreat to Meßkirch, where they enjoyed a more favourable defensive position. However, it also meant that any retreat by Kray into Austria via Switzerland and the Vorarlberg was cut off.

On May 4 and 5, the French launched repeated and fruitless assaults on Meßkirch. At nearby Krumbach, where the Austrians also had the superiority of position and force, the 1st Demi-Brigade took the village and the heights around it, which gave them a commanding aspect over Meßkirch. Subsequently, Kray withdrew his forces to Sigmaringen, followed closely by the French. Fighting at nearby Biberach an der Ris ensued on May 9; action principally consisted of the 25,000-man-strong French "Center", commanded by Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr. After being flanked by General Moreau, who approached Ulm from the east and overwhelmed his outposts, Kray retreated to Munich. Again, on May

The Brunswick Manifesto

The manifesto stated that if the French royal family were unharmed, the Allied armies would abstain from looting and respect the lives of French citizens. However, if the royal family were abused or humiliated, the manifesto warned that Paris may be razed to the ground in revenge. It was thought to have been written by several French émigrés.

The manifesto declared:

> "That drawn into this war by irresistible circumstances, the two allied courts entertain no other aims than the welfare of France, and have no intention of enriching themselves by conquests...That they do not propose to meddle in the internal government of France, and that they merely wish to deliver the king, the queen, and the royal family from their captivity, and procure for His Majesty the necessary security to enable him, without danger or hindrance, to make such engagements as he shall see fit, and to work for the welfare of his subjects, according to his pledges...The city of Paris and all its inhabitants shall be required to submit at once and without delay to the king, to place that prince in full and complete liberty, and to assure to him...the inviolability and respect which the law of nature and of nations demands of subjects toward sovereigns...If the chateau of the Tuileries is entered by force or attacked, if the least violence be offered to their Majesties, and if their safety and their liberty are not immediately assured, [we] will inflict an ever memorable vengeance by delivering over the city of Paris to military execution and complete destruction, and the rebels guilty of the said outrages to the punishment that they merit..."

The Girondin case for war

The Girondins were a political group during the French Revolution, active in the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention from 1791 to 1793. They were a loosely affiliated group of individuals, including lawyers, intellectuals, journalists, businessmen, merchants, industrialists, and financiers. They were initially part of the Jacobin movement, along with the Montagnards, and campaigned for the end of the monarchy. However, they resisted the spiralling momentum of the Revolution, which caused conflict with the more radical Montagnards.

The Girondins wanted war in 1791-92 for several reasons. Firstly, they wanted to militarise the revolution, provide it with direction and impetus, and consolidate their power. They believed that a war with Austria would ignite French patriotism and reinvigorate revolutionary sentiment, as well as test the loyalty of the king. They argued that Austria was weak, and that Prussia, as a rival of Austria, was unlikely to join a coalition. Furthermore, they believed that Britain, Russia, and Sweden had their own problems and would not get involved in a war against France.

The Girondins also believed that a revolutionary war would become a "crusade for universal liberty", as put by Jacques Brissot, one of their leaders. He envisioned French soldiers liberating oppressed peoples from despotism.

The Girondins' case for war was successful, and on April 20, 1792, war was declared against Austria. This marked the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars, which lasted from 1792 to 1802 and had a profound effect on French society and the course of European history.

The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

Early Life and Military Career

Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769 on the island of Corsica. He faced challenges due to his accented French and being regarded as an outsider during his education in mainland France. However, he excelled in military studies and graduated from the military academy in Paris in 1785. Following his father's death, the 15-year-old Napoleon became the head of his family. In 1793, he relocated his family to France due to strained relations in Corsica, where he had advocated for independence from French rule.

Napoleon's military career began amidst the French Revolution, which presented opportunities for ambitious individuals like him. He played a pivotal role in capturing the city of Toulon from royalists, sustaining a wound to his thigh during the battle. As a reward for his bravery, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general at the young age of 24. In October 1795, Napoleon once again proved his worth by quashing a revolt in Paris that threatened the National Convention. This successful defence of the Republic earned him the position of military adviser to the Directory, the new government of France, and commander-in-chief of the French Army of Italy.

Italian Campaigns and Rise to Prominence

Napoleon's military prowess and strategic brilliance came to the fore during his Italian campaigns. In April 1796, he commenced his first Italian campaign, during which he defeated the Austrians in a series of battles, including Lodi, Arcole, and Rivoli. His energetic command style and victories earned him the admiration of his troops and elevated his stature within the French military. By 1797, Napoleon's Italian Campaign had forced Austria to surrender and sign the Treaty of Campo Formio. This string of victories propelled the relatively unknown Bonaparte into the limelight, marking the beginning of his rise to power.

Egyptian Campaign and Return to France

In 1798, Napoleon proposed and led an expedition to Egypt, aiming to weaken British trade routes to India and establish a French colony. He successfully captured Malta and landed at Alexandria, Egypt, defeating Mamluk forces at the Battle of the Pyramids. However, the destruction of the French fleet by the British at the Battle of the Nile stranded Napoleon's army in Egypt. He then marched into Syria in early 1799 but was halted at Acre. Theories suggest that during the retreat, Napoleon tested his troops' loyalty by poisoning plague-ridden soldiers to prevent them from slowing down the withdrawal.

Coup d'état and First Consul of France

Napoleon abandoned his army in Egypt and returned to France, sensing an opportunity amidst internal rifts and military setbacks. On November 9, 1799, he staged a bloodless coup d'état, overthrowing the Directory and establishing the Consulate, with himself as the First Consul of France. At 30 years of age, Napoleon had become the most powerful man in the country.

Military Victories and Reforms

Napoleon's focus on stability and his military genius led to a series of victories against European powers. In June 1800, he drove the Austrians out of Italy at the Battle of Marengo. He reorganised the French army, now known as the Grande Armée, and established new training academies. By 1802, Napoleon had signed the Treaty of Amiens with Britain, temporarily restoring peace in Europe. During his rule as First Consul, he implemented wide-ranging reforms, including the Napoleonic Code, which streamlined the confusing laws of pre-revolutionary France. He improved infrastructure, founded the country's first central bank, and completed the Louisiana Purchase from the United States.

Emperor of France

Napoleon's power grab continued, and in 1802, a referendum anointed him as 'consul for life'. However, he craved a hereditary line of succession to secure his regime, so he crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804. His coronation ceremony at Notre-Dame Cathedral, where he took the crown and placed it on his head, symbolised his rise from a Corsican outsider to the pinnacle of power in France. Napoleon's empire-building aspirations led to further conflicts with European powers, including the Battle of Trafalgar, which confirmed British naval superiority.

In summary, Napoleon Bonaparte's rise was characterised by military triumphs, strategic brilliance, and a series of political manoeuvres that capitalised on the instability following the French Revolution. His rise culminated in him becoming the Emperor of France, shaping the course of European history in the early 19th century.

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