Russians In Germany And Austria: Who Invaded Whom?

The history of Russia and Germany's invasions of each other is a long and complex one. In the 20th century, Russia and Germany invaded each other twice.

The first invasion was in 1914 when Russia invaded Germany at the outset of World War I. This invasion was part of a pincer movement by the Allies against Germany and was known as the Eastern Front. The Eastern Front was a 'war of movement' with Central Powers fielding over 2.5 million troops against a disorganized force of 4 million Russians. By the end of World War I, both the Russian and German empires had collapsed.

The second invasion was in 1941 when Germany invaded Russia as part of Operation Barbarossa. This was the largest land offensive in human history with 10 million combatants taking part and over 8 million casualties by the end of the operation. The invasion was part of Germany's ideological goal of eradicating communism and conquering western Soviet Union to repopulate it with Germans. The invasion was a massive escalation of World War II and resulted in the deaths of over 26 million Soviet people.

The third invasion was in 1945 when Soviet troops invaded Germany as part of the Allied Forces. This invasion marked the end of World War II in Europe and resulted in the division of Germany into four zones occupied by the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union.

The fourth and final invasion was in 1946 when the US, UK, and France combined to form the Berlin Blockade which prevented supplies from reaching Berlin. This invasion was ultimately unsuccessful as the Soviets were able to supply the city via airlifts.

Russia and Austria's involvement in World War I

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, on June 28, 1914, is often viewed as the "spark" that ignited World War I. Austria-Hungary, blaming Serbia for the assassination, declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. This declaration of war prompted Russia to issue an ultimatum to Vienna, warning Austria-Hungary against attacking Serbia, as Serbia was a Russian ally. Russia also began mobilizing its forces along the border. In response, Germany demanded Russia's demobilization, and when this was not met, declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914.

Russia's entry into World War I had been gradual, influenced by its defence of Orthodox Serbia, its pan-Slavic aspirations, and its desire to maintain its status as a major world power. Russia's industrial base and railway network had improved since 1905, and in 1913, Nicholas II expanded the Russian army to over 500,000 men. However, Russia was still relatively unprepared for war, lacking sufficient artillery, shells, transport, and even boots for its soldiers. The country faced significant logistical challenges, as its supplies had to be transported over long distances, and internal strife within the Russian High Command further weakened its position.

Austria-Hungary, on the other hand, had been concerned about Russia's growing influence in the Balkans and its adoption of a pan-Slavist policy, which aimed to unite all Slavonic-speaking peoples under the Tsar. This tension, along with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, led to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia.

The conflict between Russia and Austria-Hungary played out on the Eastern Front, where the Central Powers, including Austria-Hungary, faced a larger but disorganized Russian force. The war resulted in huge losses for both sides and contributed to revolutions in Russia. Ultimately, both the Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires collapsed, leading to a new world order.

The Russian Empire's expansionist aspirations

Russia's expansionist aspirations can be traced back to at least 1895, and possibly as early as 1878, when the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina reasserted Habsburg interests in the region. This move by Austria-Hungary, a multinational autocratic empire, set the stage for future conflict with Russia, which also had expansionist goals in the Balkans. To counter the threat posed by Austria-Hungary, Russia sought alliances with other powers, forming the League of the Three Emperors with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1873. However, conflicting interests in the Balkans led to the collapse of this alliance by 1887.

In 1881, Russia formed an alliance with Serbia, which became a satellite state of the Russian Empire. This alliance furthered Russia's goal of gaining influence in the Balkans and posed a direct challenge to Austria-Hungary's interests in the region. Russia also sought to assert control over the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus, collectively known as the Straits, which provided access to the Mediterranean Sea.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Russia continued to pursue its expansionist aspirations in the Balkans. In 1903, a major revolt in Macedonia and the assassination of King Alexander of Serbia led to a shift in Serbian alliances, with the country moving closer to Russia. Russia supported Serbia's expansionist policy of unifying all South Slavs under Serbian rule, which brought it into direct conflict with Austria-Hungary.

In 1908, Russia and Austria-Hungary came to the brink of war over the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Habsburg monarchy. While the immediate crisis was averted, tensions between the two powers continued to escalate, fuelled by Serbian unrest in the South Slav provinces of Austria-Hungary. This eventually led to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by Bosnian Serbs in 1914. The assassination triggered a chain of events that ultimately led to the outbreak of World War I, with Russia and Austria-Hungary on opposing sides.

The Russian Revolution

In the years leading up to the revolution, Russia faced several challenges that contributed to the growing discontent among its people. The Industrial Revolution, which had already transformed Western Europe and the United States, was slow to take hold in Russia. When it finally did, around the turn of the 20th century, it brought about immense social and political changes. The population of major Russian cities, such as St. Petersburg and Moscow, nearly doubled between 1890 and 1910, resulting in overcrowding and destitute living conditions for the burgeoning working class.

Additionally, a population boom, harsh growing seasons due to Russia's northern climate, and a series of costly wars, including the Crimean War and the Russo-Japanese War, led to frequent food shortages across the vast empire. A famine in 1891-1892 is estimated to have killed up to 400,000 Russians. The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 further weakened Russia and the position of Czar Nicholas II, as the country suffered heavy losses of soldiers, ships, money, and international prestige.

The failures of Czar Nicholas II's leadership became even more apparent with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Russia's industrial and military capabilities lagged far behind those of its enemies, particularly Germany. Russia's heavy industry was insufficient to equip the massive armies that the Czar mobilized, and its munitions reserves were limited. Russian soldiers often lacked basic equipment, and the country's output of bullets was initially just 13,000 rounds per day.

The war quickly turned into a disaster for Russia, with the country suffering a brutal defeat at the Battle of Tannenberg just weeks into the conflict. As the war dragged on, casualties mounted, and the country's infrastructure struggled to support the war effort. Food and fuel shortages plagued Russia, and inflation soared. The already weak economy was further disrupted by the costly war expenditures.

By early 1917, Russia was in the throes of a severe crisis. Breadlines formed in many cities, and workers went on strike, demanding higher wages to compensate for the high cost of food. On International Women's Day, tens of thousands of people, including striking factory workers and mothers demanding food for their children, marched in the streets of Petrograd. The czar's officials responded with violence, but the protests continued, and the army eventually joined the demonstrators.

Faced with growing unrest, Czar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate in March 1917, bringing an end to the Romanov dynasty's rule. A provisional government, composed of moderate Duma deputies, socialists, and liberals, was formed to lead the country. However, this government soon faced challenges from the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, who had returned to Russia from exile with the support of the Germans. Lenin's slogan, "Peace, Land, Bread," resonated with Russians weary of war and struggling to survive.

In November 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power, marking a pivotal moment in the Russian Revolution. The new Bolshevik government, with Lenin as its head, established the world's first communist state. Civil war broke out soon after, pitting the Red Army, fighting for Lenin's Bolshevik government, against the White Army, a loose alliance of monarchists, capitalists, and supporters of democratic socialism. The civil war ended in 1923 with the victory of Lenin's Red Army and the establishment of the Soviet Union.

The Soviet Union's seizure of German-owned farms and businesses

During this period, the Soviet Union introduced forced collectivization of its agricultural sector, aiming to integrate individual landholdings and labour into collectively-controlled farms. While the policy intended to increase food supply for the urban population and support industrialization, it had devastating consequences. The replacement of individual peasant farms by collective ones led to food shortages in cities, as peasants chose to consume their produce rather than sell it. This resulted in city dwellers receiving only half the grain that had been available before the war.

The campaign against the kulaks, who were blamed for withholding surpluses of agricultural produce, involved dispossession, deportation, and execution. Kulaks were coerced into giving up their land to make way for collective farms, and those who resisted were met with harsh repercussions. Stalin enforced collectivization by sending special regimes to confiscate any food they could find, and kulaks who argued that starvation was inevitable still had everything edible seized from them.

The impact of the Soviet Union's seizure of German-owned farms and businesses extended beyond agriculture. The collectivization campaign also targeted businesses and industries, with private enterprises nationalized and incorporated into the collective system. This campaign, driven by Marxist-Leninist ideology, sought to eradicate capitalist mentalities and replace them with a socialist economy.

The current economic ties between Russia and Austria

Russia and Austria have had bilateral relations for centuries, with the two empires becoming allies in the 18th century, often against the Ottomans and France. In the 19th century, the two empires found themselves on opposing sides during the Crimean War, which led to a serious strain in their relations. However, Russia and Austria continued to have economic ties, with Austria becoming the first Western European country to import natural gas from the Soviet Union in 1968.

Today, Russia and Austria continue to have strong economic ties, with Russian gas supplies to Austria and the presence of Austrian companies in Russia. In 2021, Russia exported $631 million worth of goods to Austria, with crude oil being the main item. In the same year, Austria exported $2.28 billion worth of goods to Russia, with medical products being the top item. Despite Austria's public criticism of Russia's actions in Ukraine, these commercial ties have remained fairly intact in 2023, especially in the energy and finance sectors.

Raiffeisenbank (Russia) and Red Bull are among the Austrian companies that continue to operate in Russia. Additionally, OMV, an Austrian company, has continued to import gas from Russia via Slovakia, despite the seizure of Russian gas by OMV to cover an arbitration award, which led to Gazprom suspending gas supplies to OMV in November 2024.

Austria has also been a hub for Russian funds and espionage activities. Vienna, in particular, has been a central location for Russian money and intelligence operations. The extent of Russia's influence in Austria has raised concerns about the country's diplomatic integrity and its impact on European unity.

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