Austria's Jewish Exodus: America's Safe Haven

The history of Jews in Austria is a long one, dating back to the 3rd century CE. However, the question of whether many Austrian Jews fled to America specifically is a more complex one. While there is evidence that many Austrian Jews did indeed flee their country in the face of increasing anti-Semitism and violence, their destinations were varied and included South Africa, Palestine, Latin America, and Eastern Europe. In the period between 1933 and 1937, about 130,000 Jews left Germany, with many also fleeing Austria following its annexation in 1938. The United States was a desired destination for many, but strict immigration restrictions made it difficult to enter. The American President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, attempted to address the refugee crisis by organising a conference in Évian-les-Bains, France, but no lasting solution was found. Between 1938 and 1940, 117,000 Jews left Austria, with about 95,000 emigrating to the United States.

The US's response to the refugee crisis

In 1938, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt took some action to aid Jewish refugees, combining the US immigration quotas for Germany and Austria to increase opportunities for Austrian Jews. However, the overall quota remained small, and the demand for visas far outpaced the supply. Roosevelt also organized an international conference to discuss the refugee problem, but most countries, including the US, refused to expand their immigration laws.

As the refugee crisis intensified, US immigration restrictions actually tightened, with additional scrutiny placed on anyone with relatives in Nazi territories. The outbreak of World War II further complicated the situation, as transatlantic shipping was impacted and security concerns heightened.

Public opinion played a significant role in shaping the US response to the refugee crisis. Polls from 1938 revealed that while some Americans supported encouraging the arrival of refugees, even if it meant raising immigration quotas, others wanted to keep them out due to national security concerns. The fear of spies and saboteurs among the refugees, later fueled by the Herbert Karl Friedrich Bahr case, further influenced public sentiment and government policy.

Despite the limited official response, private relief organizations in the US played a crucial role in assisting thousands of Jewish refugees. Groups such as the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, the National Refugee Service, and the American Friends Service Committee provided essential support to those seeking to escape Nazi persecution.

In summary, the US's response to the refugee crisis was a mix of sympathy, inaction, and opposition, shaped by complex political, social, and security factors. While Roosevelt took some significant but limited actions, the overall response fell short of what was needed to address the scale of the crisis.

The role of foreign countries

The United States did take some action to help Jewish refugees, by increasing its immigration quota for Germans and Austrians. However, this did not significantly improve the prospects of Austrian Jewish refugees. The US was also a destination for many Jewish intellectuals and artists fleeing Austria, such as composers Gustav Mahler and Arnold Schoenberg, and authors Stefan Zweig and Arthur Schnitzler.

Other countries that accepted Jewish refugees from Austria included Palestine, South Africa, Latin America, Eastern Europe, and the United Kingdom. The UK, for example, admitted 10,000 unaccompanied Jewish children through the Kindertransport programme in 1939. Additionally, Shanghai in Japanese-occupied China took in over 18,000 Jewish refugees from Germany and Austria.

Some foreign officials also played a crucial role in assisting Jewish emigration from Austria. One notable example is the Chinese consul to Austria, Ho Feng-Shan, who risked his life and career to approve visas for thousands of Jews seeking to escape the Nazis. Another example is Geertruida Wijsmuller-Meijer, a Dutch representative, who organised the transport of around 10,000 Jewish children from Germany and Austria to the Netherlands.

Overall, the role of foreign countries was complex and varied. While some nations accepted Jewish refugees, others were reluctant to do so, and the international community struggled to find a comprehensive solution to the refugee crisis.

The impact of the Holocaust

The Holocaust, which took place between 1933 and 1945, had a profound and devastating impact on the world, with consequences that are still felt today. The state-sponsored persecution and mass murder of millions of people, including European Jews, Romani people, the intellectually disabled, political dissidents, and homosexuals, left an indelible mark on history.

The Impact on Survivors

For those who survived the horrors of the Holocaust, the aftermath was daunting. Many were liberated from the Nazi camps by Allied troops but found themselves in displaced persons camps, sometimes waiting for years before they could emigrate to new homes. The prospect of returning to their former homes was often too dangerous due to postwar violence and persistent antisemitism.

Emigration Challenges

Finding refuge in other countries was challenging and frequently dangerous. Initially, immigration abroad was very difficult, with strict quota systems in place, particularly in the United States, which many aspired to reach. Despite President Franklin D. Roosevelt's sympathy for the Jewish refugees, he believed he lacked public support to ask Congress to change the quota system. As a result, many survivors remained in displaced persons camps in Allied-occupied Germany, Austria, and Italy, waiting for the opportunity to leave Europe.

The Long-Term Effects

The Holocaust had long-term effects on both the Jewish people and the world at large. It changed the way the Jewish people regarded themselves and were seen by others, and it emphasized the persistence of evil and the limitations of the idea of progress. The Holocaust also had a significant impact on the late 1940s, with an unprecedented number of refugees, POWs, and other displaced populations moving across Europe.

The Nuremberg Trials

In an effort to bring justice and punish those responsible for the atrocities, the Nuremberg Trials of 1945-1946 were held, shining a harsh light on Nazi crimes. Additionally, the pressure to create a homeland for Jewish survivors of the Holocaust led to the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948.

Lasting Legacy

The Holocaust's bitter legacy continued to be felt by ordinary Germans, who struggled with guilt and the demands for restitution from survivors and the families of victims. The German government eventually acknowledged its responsibility and made payments to individual Jews and the Jewish people as a whole. The Holocaust's impact also extended to financial institutions, with Swiss banks acknowledging their complicity and establishing funds to aid survivors and victims of human rights abuses.

The Holocaust's impact was far-reaching and long-lasting, shaping the course of history and forever changing the lives of those who experienced it directly or indirectly.

The rise of antisemitism

The rise of modern antisemitism in Austria can be traced back to the late 19th century, when an electoral reform gave more men the right to vote, allowing more artisans to participate in elections. This political shift empowered politicians who propagated anti-Semitic sentiments, such as Georg von Schoenerer, who expressed strong anti-Catholic and anti-Habsburg views, and called for the annexation of German-speaking areas to the German Reich.

One of the most influential figures in the rise of Austrian antisemitism was Karl Lueger, the Mayor of Vienna from 1897 to 1910. Lueger, a Christian-Social politician, used antisemitism to appeal to artisans and students, blaming Jewish refugees from Eastern Europe for housing shortages and accusing Jewish citizens of not fighting in World War I. Lueger's brand of religious, cultural, and economic antisemitism became the integrating force of political Catholicism in Vienna. His appointment as mayor marked the beginning of a “new if all-too-brief Golden Age” for middle and upper-class Viennese Jews, who thrived economically and in the arts and sciences.

In the early 1930s, as antisemitism intensified, three new Jewish defensive organisations were established: the Jewish Armed Sporting and Defense Association Haganah, the Jewish Protection League, and the Bund Juedischer Frontsoldaten ("League of Jewish Front Soldiers"), which, with 8,000 members, became the largest single Jewish organisation in Austria.

In March 1938, Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany, and the situation for Austrian Jews rapidly deteriorated. Violent antisemitic attacks erupted across the country, with Jewish Austrians being publicly humiliated, attacked, robbed, and even murdered. Thousands of Austrians who opposed Nazi rule, including Jews, were sent to concentration camps. Of the 65,000 Viennese Jews deported, only about 2,000 survived, and around 800 survived by hiding.

Antisemitism in Austria did not disappear after World War II. It persisted, particularly in political parties and the media, and evolved into what sociologist Bernd Marin characterised as 'antisemitism without Jews', as Jews constituted only 0.1% of the Austrian population. During the 1980s, latent antisemitism remained, and verbal antisemitism was often expressed using coded language and ambiguous statements, reflecting the country's ambivalence towards its past.

In recent years, Austria has seen a resurgence of antisemitic incidents, including graffiti, vandalism of Jewish sites and memorials, and physical attacks. These incidents have been fuelled by rising tensions in the Middle East and a growing extreme right-wing movement in the country.

The challenges of emigration

The challenges facing Jews fleeing Austria for America were numerous and complex. The first and most significant hurdle was the necessity of obtaining an immigration visa to enter the United States. This process was fraught with difficulties, as the number of visas allocated to Austrian Jews was limited by the country's quota system. The situation was further exacerbated by the reluctance of President Franklin D. Roosevelt to advocate for an increase in the quota, despite his sympathy for the plight of Austrian Jews, due to a lack of public support for such a move.

Another significant challenge was the extensive paperwork required for emigration. Applicants had to present various documents and pieces of evidence to support their application, which proved to be an insurmountable obstacle for many. The process was made even more difficult by the Nazis, who sought to deprive fleeing Jews of their property by imposing heavy emigration taxes and restricting the amount of money that could be transferred abroad.

The rise of anti-Semitism in Austria and the increasing influence of Nazi propaganda also played a role in hindering emigration. The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in March 1938 resulted in the extension of anti-Jewish legislation, making it more urgent for Jews to flee. However, the Nazis also implemented measures to hinder emigration, such as the confiscation of Jewish-owned property and the imposition of menial tasks on Jewish citizens.

The international response to the refugee crisis was inadequate, despite efforts by President Roosevelt to address the issue. A conference convened in Evian, France, in July 1938 failed to yield a permanent or comprehensive solution. The reluctance of European and British Commonwealth countries to accept additional Jewish refugees, coupled with strict American immigration restrictions, further exacerbated the challenges faced by those seeking to emigrate.

The situation was made even more dire by the outbreak of World War II in 1939, which restricted travel and made it increasingly difficult for Jews to find safe havens. The closure of American diplomatic embassies and consulates in Germany and occupied Europe in June 1941 further limited options for emigration, as individuals could only seek assistance from American consuls in Spain, Portugal, or the unoccupied part of France.

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