Germany's Invasion Of Austria And Poland: Who Was First?

On March 12, 1938, German troops entered Austria, and the country was incorporated into Germany the following day. This annexation, known as the Anschluss, was the result of a prolonged period of economic stagnation, political dictatorship, and intense Nazi propaganda inside Austria. The German invasion of Austria occurred over a year before the invasion of Poland in September 1939, which marked the start of World War II.

Hitler's Mein Kampf and the annexation of Austria

In his 1925 book, Mein Kampf, Hitler wrote about his intentions to annex Austria into Germany. He wrote:

> German-Austria must return to the great German motherland, and not because of economic considerations of any sort. No, no: even if from the economic point of view this union were unimportant, indeed, if it were harmful, it ought nevertheless to be brought about. Common blood belongs in a common Reich. As long as the German nation is unable even to band together its own children in one common State, it has no moral right to think of colonization as one of its political aims. Only when the boundaries of the Reich include even the last German, only when it is no longer possible to assure him of daily bread inside them, does there arise, out of the distress of the nation, the moral right to acquire foreign soil and territory.

Hitler, an Austrian himself, held strong nationalist beliefs from a young age. He believed that all Germans, including Austrian Germans, should be united in one common state. This idea of a "Greater Germany" was not new and had been the subject of debate since the 19th century. However, the unification of Germany in 1871, led by Otto von Bismarck, excluded Austria and was dominated by Prussia. This left many Austrians feeling that their country was not economically viable without the lands previously held by the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Hitler's desire to annex Austria was also driven by his belief in Lebensraum ("living space"). He wanted to acquire more land in Eastern Europe, and annexing Austria was the first step in this expansionist agenda.

Hitler's intentions to annex Austria became clear in the Hossbach Memorandum, a record of a meeting held in November 1937. In this meeting, Hitler stated that economic problems were causing Germany to fall behind in the arms race. He believed that the solution was to launch a series of wars to seize Austria and Czechoslovakia, plunder their economies, and gain access to their raw materials.

Hitler's plans to annex Austria were temporarily hindered by the Austrian chancellor, Kurt Schuschnigg, who wanted to maintain Austrian independence. However, Schuschnigg faced increasing pressure from pro-unification activists and the Austrian Nazi Party, which was gaining popularity. Eventually, Hitler demanded that Schuschnigg appoint members of the Austrian Nazi Party to his cabinet and give them full political rights. When Schuschnigg called for a plebiscite on Austrian independence, Hitler decided to invade immediately to prevent the vote. On March 12, 1938, German troops crossed the border into Austria, unopposed by the Austrian military.

Hitler's annexation of Austria, known as the Anschluss, was the first major step in his desire to create a Greater German Reich. It was also the Nazi regime's first act of territorial aggression and expansion, violating the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain. The international community's failure to intervene or punish this violation set a precedent for Hitler's future expansionist actions, including the invasion of Czechoslovakia and Poland.

The Austrian chancellor's attempted referendum

Hitler's actions were driven by his desire to incorporate ethnic Germans outside Germany into a "Greater Germany". The idea of a united Austria and Germany, known as the "Anschluss", gained support after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. The Nazis, for whom unification was integral to their ideology, cultivated pro-unification tendencies in Austria and sought to undermine the Austrian government, which opposed unification.

Fearing Hitler's intentions, Schuschnigg called for the referendum. However, Hitler was determined to prevent the vote and decided to invade Austria immediately. By 11 March, Schuschnigg was aware of the impending invasion and cancelled the referendum, offering to resign. Hitler demanded that the Austrian president, Wilhelm Miklas, appoint an Austrian Nazi as the new chancellor. When Miklas refused, Hitler ordered the invasion to commence at dawn on 12 March.

The referendum attempt and the subsequent invasion highlighted the complex dynamics within Austria regarding unification. While some Austrians supported unification, others vehemently opposed it, including the Austrofascist Fatherland Front, which controlled the Austrian government. The referendum attempt also exposed the extent of Hitler's aggression and his willingness to use military force to achieve his ideological goals.

Hitler's invasion of Austria

On March 13, 1938, Austria was annexed into the German Reich, an event known as the Anschluss. This annexation was the culmination of years of political tension and upheaval in Austria, as well as the realisation of a long-held desire for a Greater Germany among many Germans and Austrians.

Hitler's Rise to Power and the Growth of Nazism in AustriaAdolf Hitler, an Austrian himself, rose to power in Germany in 1933. He had joined the German Workers' Party (DAP) in 1919, which later became the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party). Hitler's ideology, as laid out in his 1925 book, "Mein Kampf", advocated for the unification of all Germans into one nation-state, including the annexation of Austria.

In Austria, the Nazi Party failed to gain significant support in the 1930 general election. However, their popularity grew after Hitler came to power in Germany, and they launched a propaganda campaign with slogans like "Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer" ("One People, One Empire, One Leader"). Despite this, the Austrian Nazi Party failed to win any seats in the November 1930 general election.

The Attempted Coup and Growing German InfluenceIn July 1934, a pro-Nazi group attempted a coup in Austria, which was planned in Germany with Hitler's approval. While they succeeded in assassinating the Austrian Chancellor, Engelbert Dollfuss, the coup ultimately failed due to a lack of support from the Austrian military. This prompted many leading Austrian Nazis to flee to Germany, where they continued to agitate for unification.

In 1936, the Austrian Chancellor, Kurt Schuschnigg, faced with increasing economic pressure, signed an agreement with Germany, releasing imprisoned Nazis and allowing some Nazi newspapers. However, this did not satisfy Hitler, and the Austrian Nazis continued to grow in strength.

Hitler's Ultimatum and the Invasion of AustriaOn February 12, 1938, Hitler met with Schuschnigg and demanded that members of the Austrian Nazi Party be appointed to his cabinet, threatening invasion. Fearful, Schuschnigg called for a plebiscite on March 13 to decide on Austria's independence. Hitler, determined to prevent this vote, decided to invade immediately.

On March 11, Schuschnigg cancelled the plebiscite and offered to resign. Hitler then demanded that the Austrian President, Wilhelm Miklas, appoint a Nazi, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, as the new Chancellor. When Miklas refused, Hitler ordered the invasion to commence at dawn on March 12.

The Annexation and its AftermathOn the morning of March 12, German soldiers crossed the border into Austria, encountering no resistance. Hitler himself rode in a car across the border and gave a speech in Linz, calling for an immediate Anschluss. The next day, Austria's parliament approved the annexation, and Austria ceased to exist as a nation, becoming a province of Germany.

A referendum was held on April 10 to ratify the annexation, with 99.7% of voters supporting it. However, this vote was neither free nor secret, and around 8% of Austrian voters were excluded, including Jews and political dissidents.

The annexation of Austria demonstrated Hitler's aggressive territorial ambitions and the failure of Britain and France to take action against him for violating the Versailles Treaty. It was one of the first major steps in Hitler's plan to create a Greater German Reich, and it set the stage for further expansion and the eventual outbreak of World War II.

The Anschluss and the Austrian population

The Anschluss, or the unification of Austria and Germany, was an idea that gained traction after the Austro-Hungarian Empire fell in 1918. The proposal enjoyed strong support from both Austrian and German citizens, particularly those on the political left and centre. However, by the time Hitler rose to power in 1933, unification with Germany was largely identified with the Nazis.

In 1938, Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg announced that there would be a referendum on unification with Germany, to be held on 13 March. Hitler, portraying this as defying the popular will, threatened an invasion and pressured Schuschnigg to resign. On 12 March, the German army crossed the border into Austria, unopposed by the Austrian military. A plebiscite was held on 10 April, with coercion and non-secret ballots resulting in 99.7% approval for the Anschluss.

While the true opinions of the Austrian population are unknown, it is estimated that about 70% would have voted to preserve Austrian independence. The takeover allowed Austrian Nazis to flaunt their antisemitism, and many Jews tried to flee the country. The Anschluss was also popular among Austrians who wanted to put an end to the "Jewish Question".

Hitler's forces suppressed all opposition. In the few weeks between the Anschluss and the plebiscite, authorities rounded up Social Democrats, Communists, other political dissenters, and Austrian Jews, imprisoning or sending them to concentration camps. Within a few days of 12 March, 70,000 people had been arrested.

The Popularity of the Anschluss

Hitler's popularity reached an unprecedented peak after the unification. While the plebiscite was subject to large-scale Nazi propaganda and the abrogation of the voting rights of around 360,000 people, historians agree that the result cannot be explained solely by opportunism or socioeconomic desires. The Anschluss represented genuine German nationalist feeling in Austria during the interwar period.

The Social Democratic Party of Austria leader Karl Renner and the highest representative of the Roman Catholic Church in Austria, Cardinal Theodor Innitzer, both endorsed the unification. However, Austrian socialists reacted with disgust to Renner's endorsement, prompting a split in the party. Innitzer's endorsement is also disputed, as he was reportedly "despised" by Austrian workers, and the Anschluss sparked Catholic protests under the slogan "Our Führer is Christ".

According to Hungarian historian Oszkár Jászi, the idea of unification was opposed by most political circles in Austria. Jászi noted that Austrian socialism and Catholicism realised the fate that awaited them under Nazi rule. The unification was also opposed by Austrian Jews, old Habsburgist officers and officials, and a considerable part of Austrian capitalism. Most contemporary writers estimated that about two-thirds of Austrians wanted to remain independent.

According to Gestapo reports, only a quarter to a third of Austrian voters in Vienna were in favour of the unification. In most rural areas, especially in Tyrol, support for the Anschluss was even lower. According to Evan Burr Bukey, no more than one-third of Austrians ever fully supported Nazism during its existence. According to the Austrian government, with a voting age of 24, about 70% would have voted to preserve Austrian independence. Czech-American historian Radomír Luža estimated that between 65% and 75% supported independence.

The Aftermath

The Anschluss was among the first major steps in Hitler's desire to create a Greater German Reich that included all ethnic Germans and territories lost after World War I. It demonstrated Hitler's aggressive territorial ambitions and the failure of Britain and France to take action against him for violating the Versailles Treaty.

The Anschluss was given immediate effect by legislative act on 13 March, subject to ratification by a referendum. Austria became the province of Ostmark, and Arthur Seyss-Inquart was appointed governor. The referendum was held on 10 April and officially recorded a support of 99.7% of the voters.

Austria remained part of Germany until the end of World War II. On 27 April 1945, a provisional government in Allied-occupied Austria declared the unification "null and void".

The Anschluss plebiscite

The plebiscite was supported by the Social Democratic Party of Austria, whose leader Karl Renner endorsed Adolf Hitler, and Cardinal Theodor Innitzer, the highest representative of the Catholic Church in Austria. This meant that about two-thirds of Austrians could be counted on to vote for the Anschluss. However, Innitzer was intimidated into endorsing the Anschluss and was assaulted by Nazi supporters.

The plebiscite was preceded by the suppression of all opposition by Hitler's forces. Before the first German soldier crossed the border, Heinrich Himmler and a few Schutzstaffel (SS) officers landed in Vienna to arrest prominent representatives of the First Republic. During the few weeks between the Anschluss and the plebiscite, authorities rounded up Social Democrats, Communists, other potential political dissenters, and Austrian Jews, imprisoning or sending them to concentration camps. Within a few days of 12 March, 70,000 people had been arrested.

The referendum question was: "Do you agree with the reunification of Austria with the German Reich that was enacted on 13 March 1938 and do you vote for the party of our leader Adolf Hitler?"

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