Germany's War History With Austria-Hungary: Did They Clash?

Germany and Austria-Hungary were allies during World War I, which began in 1914 after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. The complex web of alliances between major European powers at the time meant that the conflict quickly escalated, drawing in most of the continent's major states. While Germany and Austria-Hungary fought together against Russia, France, Italy and Serbia, they never went to war with each other.

The Austro-Prussian War

The war erupted as a result of a dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which they had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864. Prussia was also allied with the Kingdom of Italy, linking the conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification.

The crisis began on 26 January 1866, when Prussia protested against the decision of the Austrian Governor of Holstein to allow the estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, claiming that this breached the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria responded on 7 February, stating that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights. In March, Austria reinforced its troops along its frontier with Prussia, leading to a partial mobilisation of five divisions by Prussia on 28 March.

Prussia's Minister President, Otto von Bismarck, formed an alliance with Italy on 8 April, committing it to the war if Prussia entered into one against Austria within three months. This incentivised Bismarck to go to war with Austria within that timeframe so that Italy would divert Austrian strength away from Prussia. Austria responded by mobilising its Southern Army on the Italian border on 21 April, and Italy called for a general mobilisation on 26 April. Prussia's general mobilisation orders were signed in steps on 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, and 12 May.

On 1 June, Austria brought the Schleswig-Holstein dispute before the German Diet, and on 5 June, it decided to convene the Diet of Holstein on 11 June. Prussia declared that the Gastein Convention of 14 August 1865 had been nullified and invaded Holstein on 9 June. When the German Diet responded by voting for a partial mobilisation against Prussia on 14 June, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation had ended. The Prussian Army then invaded Hanover, Saxony, and the Electorate of Hesse on 15 June, and Italy declared war on Austria on 20 June.

The main campaign of the war occurred in Bohemia. The Prussian Chief of General Staff, Helmuth von Moltke, had planned meticulously for the war. He rapidly mobilised the Prussian army and advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was concentrating for an invasion of Silesia. The Prussian armies, led by King William I, converged, and the two sides met at the Battle of Königgrätz on 3 July. The victory was decisive for Prussia, with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times the Prussian figure.

An armistice between Prussia and Austria came into effect at noon on 22 July, and a preliminary peace was signed on 26 July at Nikolsburg. The Peace of Prague on 23 August 1866 resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation, Prussian annexation of several of Austria's former allies, and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs. Prussia was now free to form the North German Confederation, incorporating all the German states north of the Main River.

World War I

The origins of World War I can be traced back to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, on June 28, 1914. This event set off a series of diplomatic and military escalations among the major powers of Europe, leading to the outbreak of war by early August 1914.

Austria-Hungary, with German encouragement, declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, in response to the assassination. This declaration of war was supported by Germany, who provided a "blank cheque" of military support to Austria-Hungary. Russia's support of Serbia brought France into the conflict, and Germany subsequently declared war on Russia and France on August 1 and 3, respectively. Germany's violation of Belgian neutrality and the threat of German domination in Europe prompted Britain and its empire to join the war on August 4, 1914, marking the start of a global war.

The complex web of alliances and rivalries among European powers played a significant role in the escalation of tensions. Germany's unification in 1871 altered the balance of power in Europe and strengthened its position at the heart of Central Europe. This led to the formation of rival alliance systems, with Germany forging an alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879, which Italy later joined. In response, Russia and France entered into an alliance in 1893, and Germany's ambitions to build a battle fleet initiated a naval arms race with Britain.

The assassination of Franz Ferdinand heightened tensions and provided the catalyst for the outbreak of war. Austria-Hungary sought to punish Serbia and demonstrate its strength, while Germany's ambitions, perception of isolation, and fear of encirclement by rival alliances drove its foreign policy. The preservation of Austria-Hungary as its only reliable ally became an important aspect of German policy.

The July Crisis, a series of diplomatic and military escalations, further intensified the situation. Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia on July 23, demanding harsh concessions that would undermine Serbian sovereignty. Russia, a major supporter of Serbia, responded with a partial mobilisation of its armed forces, increasing the likelihood of a wider European war. Despite attempts at mediation, the complex network of alliances and competing interests among European powers ultimately led to the outbreak of World War I.

Nazi Germany's annexation of Austria

In the early 1930s, the Austrian Nazi Party gained popularity, and by 1933, Austrian Nazis attempted a coup, assassinating Austrian chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. This failed, and many leading Austrian Nazis fled to Germany, from where they continued to push for unification. In 1938, Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg announced a referendum on unification, to be held on March 13. However, on March 11, Hitler threatened an invasion and demanded Schuschnigg's resignation. Schuschnigg resigned, and the next day, German troops crossed the border into Austria, unopposed. On March 13, Austrian Nazi Chancellor Arthur Seyss-Inquart, appointed by Hitler, signed the "Reunification of Austria with Germany" law, formally incorporating Austria into Nazi Germany.

The annexation of Austria was a significant breach of the post-World War I international order, as it violated the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which expressly forbade the unification of Austria and Germany. The international community's failure to intervene or punish Nazi Germany for this violation was a significant act of appeasement, allowing Hitler to continue his expansionist policies unchecked.

Hungary's involvement in World War II

During World War II, the Kingdom of Hungary was a member of the Axis powers. In the 1930s, the country relied on increased trade with Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany to pull itself out of the Great Depression. By 1938, Hungarian politics and foreign policy had become more stridently nationalistic, and Hungary adopted an irredentist policy similar to Germany's, attempting to incorporate ethnic Hungarian areas in neighbouring countries into Hungary.

Hungary benefited territorially from its relationship with the Axis. Settlements were negotiated regarding territorial disputes with the Czechoslovak Republic, the Slovak Republic, and the Kingdom of Romania. On November 20, 1940, Hungary became the fourth member to join the Axis powers when it signed the Tripartite Pact. The following year, Hungarian forces participated in the invasion of Yugoslavia and the invasion of the Soviet Union. Their participation was noted by German observers for its particular cruelty, with occupied peoples subjected to arbitrary violence.

In 1943, Prime Minister Miklós Kállay began peace negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom. Berlin was already suspicious of the Kállay government, and in September 1943, the German General Staff prepared a project to invade and occupy Hungary. In March 1944, German forces occupied Hungary. When Soviet forces began threatening Hungary, an armistice was signed between Hungary and the USSR by Regent Miklós Horthy. Soon afterward, Horthy's son was kidnapped by German commandos and Horthy was forced to revoke the armistice. The Regent was then deposed from power, while Hungarian fascist leader Ferenc Szálasi established a new government, with German backing. In 1945, Hungarian and German forces in Hungary were defeated by advancing Soviet armies.

Approximately 300,000 Hungarian soldiers and more than 600,000 civilians died during World War II, including between 450,000 and 606,000 Jews and 28,000 Roma. Many cities were damaged, most notably the capital Budapest. Most Jews in Hungary were protected from deportation to German extermination camps for the first few years of the war, although they were subject to a prolonged period of oppression by anti-Jewish laws that imposed limits on their participation in public and economic life. From the start of the German occupation of Hungary in 1944, Jews and Roma were deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp. Hungary's borders were returned to their pre-1938 lines after its surrender.

The Tripartite Pact

Germany and Austria-Hungary did go to war with each other, but only briefly during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. This conflict was part of a wider rivalry between the two nations, which resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states and the abolition of the German Confederation.

Now, onto the Tripartite Pact:

The pact's practical effects were limited due to the long distance between the European and Asian operational theatres, and the disparate strategic interests of the signatories. As such, the Axis was only a loose alliance, and its defensive clauses were never invoked. The pact's ideological underpinnings, however, rooted in global fascism and the aggressive ambitions for a new world order, underscored the broader Axis strategy against the Allies.

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