Austria's War: Marie Antoinette's Execution And France's Conflict

Marie Antoinette, the Austrian-born queen of France, was executed by guillotine on October 16, 1793, during the French Revolution. Her death sentence came after being convicted of high treason against the French Republic, including conspiring with her home country, Austria, against France. At the time of her execution, France and Austria were already at war, with the War of the First Coalition (1792-1797) in its second year. Despite the personal grief of some members of the Austrian royal family, the House of Habsburg did not have a strong political reaction to Marie Antoinette's execution, as most of the dynastic and political maneuvering had already happened.

Austria's reaction to the execution of Marie Antoinette

The execution of Marie Antoinette on 16 October 1793 was one of the first major events of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. By this time, the war between Austria and the First Coalition was already in its second year, having begun in April 1792.

The House of Habsburg, of which Marie Antoinette was a member, did not have a strong response to her death because most of the political manoeuvring had already happened. Habsburg emperor Leopold had already tried to protect his sister by issuing the Padua Circular in July 1791, requesting support from other monarchs in demanding the release of the royal family from their arrest. This led to the Declaration of Pillnitz in August 1791, where Leopold declared that Austria would go to war against the revolution, but only if every other major power also agreed. This was an empty threat, as the major powers were still focused on their own geopolitical goals.

Marie Antoinette's nephew, Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, was uninterested in securing the freedom of an aunt he had never met. He rejected ideas of ransoming or exchanging her for valuable French prisoners of war, and Austria's military successes meant he was unlikely to accept entreaties of peace from France. Austrian officials were also reluctant to negotiate with the unpredictable revolutionary "brigands".

Some of Marie Antoinette's siblings were personally devastated by her death. Her sister Maria Carolina, Queen of Naples and Sicily, was ready to go to war with France, but political machinations prevented this. In a letter, she wrote:

> I cannot be comforted for her tragic death, which I can hardly believe. Great Heavens! She who was so loved, and especially she who loved France and the French so passionately. How terrible has been her treatment at their hands!

Another sister, Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma, was also close with Marie Antoinette, and her daughter Carolina described her mother's reaction to the news:

> [S]he laughed at first, then began to cry, screamed that whoever killed her sister, a good and sensitive person, would have been burned alive. Then her face turned pale and her thin body fell to the ground. That was the only time I saw my mother lose control.

In summary, the reaction to Marie Antoinette's execution was mixed. The Habsburgs' initial political response was muted, as they had already played their hand and were losing. However, some members of the family were personally grief-stricken, with a couple even wanting to take up arms against France.

The French Revolution and the monarchy's overthrow

The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was catalysed by food shortages, economic crises, and the monarchy's financial problems. The latter issue had been exacerbated by the long-drawn-out wars of the 18th century, which had caused the French government to spend far more than its annual revenue. This debt crisis forced the monarchy to seek fundamental financial reform, which, in turn, led to protests from the Assembly of Notables and the King's own law courts, particularly the Parlement of Paris.

In May 1789, the Estates-General met to discuss the proposals. It consisted of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commons. Traditionally, each estate had one vote, meaning the nobility always dominated. However, this arrangement caused anger among commoners, and the social divisions between noble and commoner deputies grew more irreconcilable. Eventually, the deputies of the Third Estate declared that they alone represented the "nation" and had the right to constitute the body holding political sovereignty. This was a direct attack on the monarchy's political basis.

In response to the growing revolutionary sentiment, the King, Louis XVI, adopted a pro-reform stance. However, he was indecisive and reluctant to ratify texts proclaiming the abolition of privileges and the Declaration of the Rights of Man. On 5 October 1789, a mob descended on Versailles and demanded that the royal family move to Paris. They were moved to the Tuileries Palace.

In June 1791, the royal family attempted to flee to the eastern border, where they hoped to link up with royalist émigrés and invade France to start a counter-revolution. They were recognised and arrested in Varennes, and brought back to Paris. In 1792, the monarchy was formally abolished, and Louis XVI was tried and convicted of treason. On 21 January 1793, he was executed by guillotine.

Marie Antoinette, the Queen, was executed nine months later. She had been immensely unpopular in France, accused of being an Austrian spy, a careless spendthrift, and a morally bankrupt deviant. She was found guilty of conspiring with foreign powers against the security of France and of depleting the national treasury. Her execution was one of the opening events of the Reign of Terror.

The War of the First Coalition

The war was sparked by the French Revolution (1789-1799) and the ideals that threatened the established monarchies of Europe. The French revolutionaries had long feared military intervention by neighbouring monarchies, and so, on 20 April 1792, France declared war on Austria to preserve and expand the Revolution.

The French forces won the Battle of Valmy, after which they declared themselves a republic, executed their king, and pursued expansionist war goals, including the conquest of Belgium and the Rhineland. These factors drew more nations into the anti-French coalition, which included Prussia, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, Spain, and several others. By 1793, the French Republic was in dire straits, having to defend against enemy armies on all fronts. Through draconian measures, such as the Reign of Terror, the Republic was able to crush internal dissent and swell its armies with conscripts.

The French counterattacks, utilizing overwhelming numerical superiority and revolutionary zeal, succeeded in pushing the Allied armies back. The European powers gradually lost heart and began dropping out of the Coalition until the Treaty of Campo Formio in October 1797, which left Great Britain as the only nation still at war with France.

The execution of Marie Antoinette was the culmination of years of growing radicalism and a steady progression of hostility towards the monarchy. The Hapsburgs and other powers were concerned for the safety of the royal family, but by the time of her death, they had already played their hand and were losing the war. All that was left was to continue to press the war and support the counter-revolution, which they eventually lost.

Marie Antoinette's role in the French court

Marie Antoinette was born in Vienna on 2 November 1755, the daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Francis I and Habsburg Empress Maria Theresa. She was married to the Dauphin Louis, heir to the throne, at the age of 14. She became Queen of France when her husband ascended the throne as Louis XVI in 1774.

Marie Antoinette was influential in choosing shows to be put on at court and supported artists, including composers like Grétry, Gluck, and Sacchini. She was also a musician herself, playing the harp and the harpsichord, and singing. She was a patron of the painter Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, whose successful career as a portraitist was largely due to the Queen's support. Marie Antoinette was also interested in fashion, often interfering in the choice of her dresses or hairstyles, and going so far as to receive the milliner Rose Bertin, nicknamed the "Minister of Fashion".

Marie Antoinette was bound by the official rituals of her royal position, including the waking-up ceremony, elaborate preparations, royal audiences, and public meals. However, having grown up with the less elaborate ceremonial routine of Austria's royal palaces, she struggled to adapt to Versailles' complex etiquette and sought a more private life. She preferred to remain in her private chambers, located behind her state apartments, and in the Petit Trianon, given to her as a gift by Louis XVI.

Marie Antoinette was initially very popular with the public, but her image gradually became tarnished due to a series of blunders, often unwitting, that alienated public opinion. She was scrutinised for her spending and accused of emptying the royal coffers. Pamphlets, libels, and caricatures intensified after the Affair of the Diamond Necklace in 1785, a swindle of which she was an innocent victim. Every attempt to win back public opinion failed, and when the Revolution broke out, the Queen was a truly hated figure.

Marie Antoinette played an increasingly prominent political role due to Louis XVI's indecisiveness. Her rejection of reform and resistance to the French Revolution contributed to the monarchy's overthrow in 1792. She was imprisoned in the Temple on 10 August 1792 and executed on 16 October 1793.

The public perception of Marie Antoinette

Marie Antoinette, the last Queen of France before the French Revolution, was initially well-liked by the public. However, her public image took a turn for the worse as a result of several factors, including her difficulty in producing an heir, her lavish spending, and her association with the French monarchy, which was losing popularity.

Early Years as Queen

As the wife of Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette was initially well-regarded by the public. Her beauty and pleasant disposition endeared her to the people. However, as the years passed without an heir to the throne, the public's opinion of her began to sour. This was a precarious situation, as it was common for the press and public to manipulate the image of the queen to fit their desires.

Financial Crisis

As the country faced a grave financial crisis, with the population suffering, Antoinette's reputation was damaged by her lavish spending. She was known for her lavish parties, expensive wardrobe, and costly hairdos. This spending was seen as a direct contributor to the nation's financial woes, and she became known as "Madame Deficit".

Political Intrigue

Marie Antoinette also became a target of criticism by opponents of the domestic and foreign policies of Louis XVI. She was accused of being profligate, promiscuous, having illegitimate children, and sympathising with France's enemies, including her native Austria. She was falsely accused of defrauding the Crown's jewelers in the Affair of the Diamond Necklace, which further tarnished her reputation.

French Revolution

During the French Revolution, Marie Antoinette was viewed as a symbol of the excesses and failures of the monarchy. She was blamed for the country's financial crisis and was accused of conspiring with foreign powers against the interests of France. Her association with the monarchy, which was increasingly unpopular, made her a target for revolutionary forces.

Execution

Ultimately, Marie Antoinette was tried and found guilty of high treason against the French Republic. She was executed by guillotine on 16 October 1793, becoming one of the first high-profile victims of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution.

Legacy

Marie Antoinette's legacy is complex and controversial. She has been portrayed as a disruptive and despised figure, with some even blaming her for inciting the French Revolution. However, these accounts are often exaggerated and unfair, stemming from gossip and slanderous libelles published during her lifetime. She has also been viewed as a scapegoat for the failures of the old regime, with her foreign origin and gender contributing to xenophobic and misogynistic attitudes towards her.

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