Austria's Annexation Of Bosnia: A Historical Overview

In 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina fell under Austro-Hungarian rule when the Congress of Berlin approved the occupation of the Bosnia Vilayet, which was officially part of the Ottoman Empire. This occupation was intended to counterbalance Russian power in the Balkans. However, it also aggravated regional conflicts and led to numerous revolts. Three decades later, in 1908, Austria-Hungary formally annexed the occupied zone, sparking the Bosnian Crisis, also known as the Annexation Crisis. This unilateral action was viewed as a violation of international treaties and provoked strong reactions from neighbouring countries and other European powers, especially Serbia, which had its own ambitions in the region. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary was a significant event that contributed to rising tensions in the Balkans and ultimately played a role in the outbreak of World War I.

The Bosnian Crisis

In the broader sense, the "crisis" stands for the impact of this incorporation on the most important intergovernmental relations in Europe on the eve of World War I. The crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, especially Serbia, Italy and Russia, and in the long term helped lay the grounds for World War I.

The Origins of the Crisis

The origins of the crisis date back to the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which reorganised South East Europe in the wake of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). As a result of this reorganisation, the Habsburg Empire attained the right to occupy the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the so-called Sanjak of Novi Pazar. While the Treaty of Berlin granted Austria-Hungary the right to build its own administration in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the provinces officially remained possessions of the Ottoman Empire.

The Austro-Hungarian Approach

After the outbreak of the Young Turk Revolution in the Ottoman Empire three decades later, Viennese politicians feared that the new rulers would enforce a restoration of Ottoman political power in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In particular, Vienna was afraid that representatives of Bosnia and Herzegovina could be sent to the new Ottoman parliament. Not least because of the enormous efforts Austria-Hungary had invested in the infrastructural development of Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1878 and 1918, the Ballhausplatz aimed to avoid such a scenario at any price.

The Reactions of Constantinople and Belgrade

On 6 October 1908, the Habsburg Monarchy informed the Ottoman Empire of its “annexation” of Bosnia and Herzegovina, stressing that the k. u. k. army would be withdrawn from the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. In other words, from this time on, Austria-Hungary was also de jure the ruler of Bosnia and Herzegovina. For the time being, the monarchy’s step was strongly rejected in Constantinople. On 26 February 1909, the Habsburg-Ottoman crisis was resolved by a bilateral compromise, which provided certain privileges for the Muslim population of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Russia's Reaction

At the time of the “annexation”, Serbia’s traditional protecting power, Russia, was weakened due to the drawback it suffered at the end of the Russian-Japanese War in 1905. In the run-up to the formal incorporation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria-Hungary’s ambassador to Russia, Leopold Graf Berchtold, arranged a personal meeting between the Austro-Hungarian minister of foreign affairs, Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal, and his Russian counterpart, Aleksandr Petrovich Izvolʹskiĭ, at Buchlau on 2 and 3 September 1908. On this occasion, Izvolʹskiĭ recognised Vienna’s right to incorporate Bosnia and Herzegovina, but he insisted on a discussion of the question within the scope of a prior international conference. Aerenthal did not inform Izvolʹskiĭ about the intended date of incorporation and did not mention that Austria-Hungary aimed to execute its project without consultation with other political powers. This amounted to a diplomatic defeat of Russia, followed by massive protests by the Russian public.

The Impact of the Crisis

The constellation of World War I powers emerged more clearly during and after the so-called “Bosnian Crisis” of 1908 and 1909. Germany stressed its willingness to support its ally Austria-Hungary during the crisis, and Russia grew closer to France and Great Britain in the further course of events.

Austria-Hungary's Balkan Ambitions

Austria-Hungary's ambitions in the Balkans were driven by a desire to assert its power and influence in the region, as well as to distract from its domestic problems. The Balkans became an arena for competing interests of the major powers, including Austria-Hungary, and the nationalist aspirations of the emerging peoples of southeastern Europe.

In the 1870s, violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans and the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) disrupted the region. The Congress of Berlin in 1878, organised by the Great Powers, resulted in the Treaty of Berlin, which ceded de facto control of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary while allowing the provinces to nominally remain under Ottoman sovereignty. This arrangement was intended to counterbalance Russian power in the Balkans, but it aggravated conflicts and led to numerous revolts. Austria-Hungary's occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina began on July 29, 1878, and was marked by fierce resistance from both Muslim and Orthodox populations. Despite setbacks and heavy casualties, the Austro-Hungarian Army occupied Sarajevo in October 1878.

Austria-Hungary's presence in the Balkans continued to be a source of tension in the region. In 1881, Germany and Russia endorsed Austria's right to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina, and a bilateral treaty between Austria and Serbia acknowledged Serbia's agreement not to interfere in Austria-Hungary's control of the region. However, by the 1890s, Russia had withdrawn its support for the annexation, and by the early 1900s, Serbian and Montenegrin nationalism posed a growing challenge to Austria-Hungary's influence in the Balkans.

In 1908, Austria-Hungary formally annexed the occupied zone of Bosnia and Herzegovina, sparking the Bosnian Crisis. This unilateral action was intended to strengthen Austria-Hungary's position in the Balkans and was timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire. The annexation caused an international crisis, as it violated the Treaty of Berlin and was seen as an act of aggression by Serbia and Russia, who threatened war. The situation was only resolved when Germany supported Austria-Hungary, increasing Vienna's dependence on Berlin.

The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina had far-reaching consequences. It damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, particularly Serbia, Italy, and Russia, laying the groundwork for World War I. It also created an insoluble problem within the Dual Monarchy, as the Austrian and Hungarian halves of the empire could not agree on how to administer the annexed territory. Ultimately, Bosnia and Herzegovina became a condominium administered jointly by the two halves of the empire.

Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, also known as the Bosnian Crisis, began on 5 October 1908 when Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of the two territories, which had formerly been within the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire. This unilateral action was timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire.

The annexation was the culmination of Austria-Hungary's growing influence in the Balkans during the 1880s. In 1878, after the Russo-Turkish War, the Congress of Berlin approved the occupation of the Bosnia Vilayet by Austria-Hungary, which also obtained the right to garrison the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. The Treaty of Berlin caused Bosnia and Herzegovina to nominally remain under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire, but they were de facto ceded to Austria-Hungary. The Austro-Hungarian Army engaged in a major mobilisation effort to prepare for the assault on Bosnia and Herzegovina, commanding a force of 82,113 troops, 13,313 horses and 112 cannons. The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina started on 29 July 1878 and was over on 20 October.

The annexation in 1908 was intended as a catalyst for domestic policy, but it proved to be a fateful move. The incorporation of Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Dual Monarchy created an insoluble problem between the two halves of the empire. As they were unable to reach an agreement as to which half should acquire the territory, Bosnia and Herzegovina became a condominium administered by the joint Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

The consequences for foreign policy were serious. Although the annexation was merely the appropriation of a territory that was already de facto part of the Monarchy, it was seen internationally and constitutionally as an act of aggression in violation of international treaties. Serbia and Russia interpreted it as a provocation and threatened war. The situation was saved only when Germany demonstratively supported Austria-Hungary, making Vienna even more dependent on Berlin.

The annexation caused unrest among the Muslim and Serb populations. The Muslims could not believe the sovereignty of the Sultan could be overturned with a proclamation, and that they were now ruled by a Christian emperor. The Serbian Foreign Minister, Milovanovich, made such an inflammatory speech against the Austrians in the Serbian Parliament in January 1909 that he was forced to write an apology to the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, Baron Lexa von Aehrenthal.

The Treaty of Berlin

Under the Treaty of Berlin, the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were recognised as under the occupation and administration of Austria-Hungary, as outlined in Article 25. However, the treaty also stipulated that the region would formally remain under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire. This ambiguous status, with de facto control exercised by Austria-Hungary while the Ottoman Empire retained nominal ownership, set the stage for increasing tensions in the region.

The treaty also had significant implications for the religious and ethnic groups within Bosnia and Herzegovina. The region was home to Muslims, Catholics, and Orthodox Christians, and the Austrian-Hungarian administration advocated for a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation. However, these policies were met with resistance, and nationalist sentiments among Serbs, Croats, and Muslims continued to grow in the following decades.

The Congress of Berlin

The affected territories were granted varying degrees of independence. Romania became fully independent but was forced to give part of Bessarabia to Russia, and it gained Northern Dobruja. Serbia and Montenegro also gained full independence but lost territory, with Austria-Hungary occupying the Sanjak of Novi Pazar along with Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The results of the Congress were initially hailed as a success for peace in the region, but most participants were not satisfied with the outcome. The Ottomans were humiliated, Russia felt cheated despite gaining independence for Bulgaria, and Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece all received far less than they had expected. In the long term, the settlement led to rising tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary and disputes over nationalism in the Balkans, which eventually exploded in the First and Second Balkan Wars and contributed to the causes of World War I in 1914.

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