Austria's Surrender: Soviets Or Allies In Wwii?

Austria's surrender at the end of World War II is a complex issue. The country was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938 and became an integral part of the Third Reich, with 10% of the population joining the Nazi Party. During the war, hundreds of thousands of Austrians fought as German soldiers, and many served in the elite military corps of the Nazi Party, the SS. However, there was also an Austrian resistance movement, and some Austrians fought as Allied soldiers against the Germans. In the aftermath of the war, Austria was jointly occupied by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, and divided into four occupation zones. The country regained its independence in 1955, following the Austrian State Treaty, which was signed by the governments of the Soviet Union, Great Britain, the United States, and France.

Austria's surrender and the Moscow Declaration of 1943

On October 30, 1943, the foreign secretaries of the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the Republic of China signed four declarations at the Moscow Conference. One of these was the Moscow Declaration on Austria, which addressed the country's future in the aftermath of World War II.

The declaration stated that Austria, which had been annexed by Germany in 1938, was to be regarded as the first victim of Hitlerite aggression, and that the annexation was null and void. The Allies intended to establish a free and independent Austria after defeating Nazi Germany, but also acknowledged Austria's responsibility for its participation in the war.

The Moscow Declaration of 1943 was a pivotal moment for Austria, as it laid the foundation for the country's restoration and independence. It was also a significant turning point in World War II, as it signalled the Allies' commitment to reshaping postwar Europe.

Following the Moscow Declaration, Austria was occupied by the Allies and officially declared independent from Nazi Germany on April 27, 1945, which was confirmed by the Berlin Declaration on June 5, 1945. The country was then divided into four occupation zones, controlled jointly by the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the United States, and France.

The Moscow Declaration played a crucial role in shaping Austria's future and set the stage for the country's eventual independence and neutrality in the Cold War. The declaration's recognition of Austria as a victim of Nazi aggression, while also holding the country accountable for its role in the war, was a complex and controversial aspect of postwar politics.

The Soviet occupation of Austria

In the winter of 1945, troops from the 3rd and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts approached Austria's border from Hungary. After the Germans launched their last major offensive of the war at Lake Balaton, the 3rd Ukrainian Front launched a counterattack that resulted in the elimination of the bulk of German forces in the south and the capture of Vienna. The Red Army then advanced towards Linz and Graz in early May.

Soviet occupation policies in Austria were shaped by the Moscow Declaration of 1943, in which the British, Americans, and Soviets proclaimed that Austria was Germany's first victim but that it would also have to pay the price for its participation in Nazi aggression. The Red Army occupied only parts of Austria, including the capital, while Anglo-American troops entered from Germany and Italy. Thereafter, France, Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union divided Austria into four occupation zones.

Although Moscow treated Austria as a defeated Axis power, it adhered to the general line that Austria was a victim of Germany. As a result, Austria avoided losing any territory and Austrians avoided the fate of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe who were expelled or deported to the Soviet Union for slave labour. The Western Allies also successfully opposed the Kremlin's plans to impose burdensome war reparations on Austria.

However, the Western Allies consented to Moscow's demand that the Soviets should be entitled to German assets in Austria in their zone of occupation. Moscow considered all property with German owners or investors at the end of the war to be German property. As a result, Austria ended up paying more than five times what Stalin originally demanded. Local governments were obliged to feed and clothe the Red Army, which was an enormous burden.

Moscow deployed NKVD (Soviet secret police) teams to extract reparations through requisitions, seizing industrial plants and production installations. In June 1946, 30% of Austria's national budget went into covering occupation costs. From 1946 to 1955, Austria paid the Soviet Union 36.8 billion Schillings, or two percent of its accumulated GDP.

The Soviet repressive apparatus in the first months of occupation acted with considerable restraint. This can be partly explained by the fact that Moscow did not fully control Austria and that Austria was not a high priority for Moscow due to its distance from the Soviet Union's frontiers.

Soviet commanders issued orders to troops to discourage criminal conduct as soon as they entered Austria. On April 4, 1945, a directive was issued to all frontline soldiers, proclaiming that Austria was Hitler's first victim and that the Red Army had entered the country to liberate it and destroy German forces. The directive urged troops to respect Austrian traditions, families, and private property.

Order was gradually restored in the Soviet zone in the summer and fall of 1945. The number of troops was reduced, and frontline troops were placed under stricter control in encampments and barracks. Occupation troops also became more disciplined and better trained, with many being part of the NKVD. As the war turned into occupation, sexual relations between Soviet men and Austrian women became less physically violent and more transactional, and in some cases, consensual.

The Soviets pulled out of Austria in 1955, along with the Western Allies, in exchange for Austria's promises to remain neutral in the Cold War.

The Austrian State Treaty

The unique situation of Austria in postwar Europe raised questions about the extent of the country's collaboration with Nazi Germany during the war. In 1938, Austria had been annexed in its entirety by Germany, and about 10% of the population joined the Nazi Party. However, in the 1943 Declaration of Moscow, the Allies agreed to treat Austria as the first victim of Nazi aggression and to work towards establishing an independent and democratic Austria after the war. This intention was reaffirmed in the 1945 Potsdam Conference, where the Allies agreed to jointly occupy Austria and divide the country and its capital, Vienna, into four zones, as they did with Germany and Berlin.

The negotiations over the final status of Austria were protracted and influenced by the emerging Cold War dynamics. The principle sticking point during the early negotiations was the issue of compensation for German assets in Austria, with the Soviet Union seeking control of valuable industries and offering to sell them back to Austria at high prices. This issue was partially resolved through a revenue-sharing plan suggested by France, but other points of contention, such as Yugoslav claims to Austrian territory, delayed the completion of the treaty.

The climate for negotiations improved following the death of Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in 1953, which led to a "peace offensive" by the Soviet Union and the warming of relations known as the Khrushchev Thaw. In February 1955, negotiations with Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov secured a breakthrough, and an agreement was reached. The final terms of the treaty included compensation to the Soviet Union for German assets and the declaration of Austrian neutrality, which was a condition for the withdrawal of occupation forces.

The Potsdam Conference

The Participants and Representatives:

The conference was attended by the leaders of the three main Allied powers:

• Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Soviet Union
• Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (replaced by Clement Attlee midway through the conference due to election results)
• Harry S. Truman, the President of the United States (who had assumed office following the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt in April 1945)

Each leader was accompanied by their foreign ministers and aides, including Vyacheslav Molotov (Soviet Union), Anthony Eden and Ernest Bevin (United Kingdom), and James F. Byrnes (United States).

The Goals and Agenda:

• Administration of Germany: The Allies aimed to determine how to manage Germany following its unconditional surrender, which had occurred nine weeks prior to the conference. This included establishing the four occupation zones (among the three powers and France) agreed upon earlier at the Yalta Conference.
• Postwar Order and Peace Treaty Issues: The Allies sought to establish a stable postwar order and address outstanding matters related to the peace treaty.
• Countering War Effects: The conference aimed to address the impacts of the war and prevent a repetition of the mistakes made at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919.
• Border Demarcation: The Allies needed to define the borders of Poland and shift Germany's eastern border westwards to the Oder-Neisse line, reducing Germany's size by approximately 25% from its 1937 borders.
• Occupation of Austria: Both Austria and Vienna were to be divided into four occupation zones, similar to Germany. The conference also discussed the authority of Karl Renner's provisional government in Austria.
• War Reparations: The Allies agreed on war reparations to be paid by Germany, with each occupying power taking reparations from its own zone. Additionally, the Soviet Union would receive reparations from the western zones and give up claims on German industries in the eastern zone.
• Prosecution of War Criminals: The Allies discussed methods for trying Nazi war criminals, building upon the Moscow Declaration of October 1943.
• Recognition of Governments: The conference recognized a Soviet-backed group as the legitimate government of Poland and affirmed the end of recognition of the London-based Polish government-in-exile.
• Decartelization and Democratization: The Allies agreed on the "five Ds" for Germany: demilitarization, denazification, democratization, decentralization, and deindustrialization. This included abolishing Nazi organizations, repealing discriminatory laws, and encouraging democratic parties.
• Council of Foreign Ministers: The conference established a Council of Foreign Ministers, comprising the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China, to draft peace treaties and continue essential preliminary work for postwar settlements.
• Potsdam Declaration: Truman, Churchill, and Chiang Kai-shek of China issued the Potsdam Declaration, demanding Japan's unconditional surrender or face "prompt and utter destruction."

The Outcomes and Impact:

• Division of Germany and Austria: The conference solidified the division of Germany and Austria into four occupation zones, setting the stage for the Cold War tensions that would define the following decades.
• Poland's Border and Government: Poland's border was adjusted, and it received a large swath of German territory. The conference also recognized the Soviet-backed communist government in Poland, despite Stalin's broken promise to hold free elections.
• Tensions and Suspicion: The conference marked a turning point in the relationship between the Western democracies and the Soviet Union. Truman and his advisers grew increasingly suspicious of Stalin's intentions, viewing Soviet actions in Eastern Europe as aggressive expansionism.
• Atomic Bomb Revelation: During the conference, Truman hinted to Stalin about the U.S. atomic bomb project, and later, on July 24, explicitly informed him of the successful test. However, Stalin was already aware of the program through espionage.
• Japan's Surrender: The Potsdam Declaration, combined with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, led to Japan's surrender and the end of World War II.
• Start of Cold War: Within 18 months of the conference, relations deteriorated, and the Cold War emerged, marking the end of collective discussions between the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on postwar reconstruction.

The Yalta Conference

One of the key issues addressed at Yalta was the future of Poland. Stalin emphasized the historical significance of Poland as a corridor for invasions of Russia and the need for atonement for past Russian sins against Poland. He stipulated that the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland annexed in 1939, and Poland would be compensated with territorial extensions in the west at Germany's expense. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed to recognize the communist Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland, which had been installed by the Soviet Union, and Stalin pledged to permit free elections in Poland.

Another significant topic at Yalta was the Pacific War against Japan. Roosevelt sought Soviet support in the war against Japan and specifically for the planned invasion of Japan (Operation August Storm). In exchange for their participation, the Soviets were granted a sphere of influence in Manchuria following Japan's surrender, including southern Sakhalin, a lease at Port Arthur, a share in the Manchurian railroads, and the Kurile Islands. Stalin pledged to enter the war against Japan within two to three months after Germany's surrender.

The conference also addressed the future of Germany, with the Allies agreeing to divide Germany and Berlin into four occupied zones, one for each of the three principal Allies, plus a fourth zone for France, carved out of the American and British zones. They further agreed on the need for demilitarization, denazification, and disarmament of Germany, as well as the punishment of war criminals. Additionally, the Allies decided that German war reparations would be provided partly in the form of forced labor to repair the damage inflicted by Germany.

In the context of Austria, the Yalta Conference set the stage for the country's occupation and reorganization after World War II. While Austria was not specifically discussed at the conference, the decisions made regarding Germany and Eastern Europe had implications for Austria's future. The Allies agreed to jointly occupy Austria, dividing the country and Vienna into four zones, similar to Germany. This occupation lasted until 1955, when the Austrian State Treaty was signed, granting Austria independence and neutrality, and ending seventeen years of foreign occupation.

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