Austria's Threat To German Unification: Real Or Imagined?

The unification of Germany in the 19th century was a complex process that involved many different factions and interests. One of the key questions was whether Austria, a large multi-ethnic empire with a significant German-speaking population, should be included in a unified German state. This question, known as the German question, was hotly debated during the Revolutions of 1848 and led to two competing visions for German unification: the Greater German solution (Großdeutsche Lösung), which favoured unifying all German-speaking peoples under one state, and the Lesser German solution (Kleindeutsche Lösung), which sought to unify only the northern German states and exclude Austria.

The Greater German solution was promoted by the Austrian Empire and its supporters, who argued that since the Habsburgs had ruled the Holy Roman Empire for almost 400 years, Austria was best suited to lead a unified Germany. However, Austria's multi-ethnic composition posed a problem, as many non-German-speaking territories, such as Hungary and Bohemia, had no desire to be included in a German nation-state. The Lesser German solution, on the other hand, was favoured by the Kingdom of Prussia, which wanted to create a unified Germany dominated by its own Protestant House of Hohenzollern, rather than the Catholic Habsburgs.

The rivalry between Austria and Prussia resulted in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which ended in a humiliating defeat for Austria and effectively settled the German question in favour of the Lesser German solution. In the aftermath of this war, the Prussian Minister President Otto von Bismarck established the North German Confederation, excluding Austria and uniting all other German states under Prussian leadership. This confederation became the basis for the German Empire proclaimed by Bismarck in 1871, which firmly established the exclusion of Austria from a unified Germany.

Despite Austria's exclusion from the German Empire, the idea of unifying Austria and Germany persisted in some circles, particularly after the end of World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1918. This idea, known as the Anschluss, gained support in both Austria and Germany during the interwar period, but was forbidden by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. It was only with the rise of Adolf Hitler, an Austrian-born German nationalist, that the Anschluss became a realistic possibility. Hitler's election as Chancellor of Germany in 1933 set into motion increased pressure for a merger between the two countries, and in 1938, he successfully completed the annexation of Austria into the Third Reich, violating the terms of the Versailles and Saint-Germain treaties.

Austria's annexation by Germany in 1938, known as the 'Anschluss', was a violation of the Treaty of Versailles

Austria's annexation by Germany in 1938, known as the Anschluss, was a violation of the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty, which was signed in 1919, explicitly forbade the unification of Austria and Germany.

The idea of a unified Austria and Germany, or the "Anschluss," first arose after the 1871 unification of Germany, which excluded Austria and the German Austrians from the Prussian-dominated German Empire. The proposal gained support after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. The new Republic of German-Austria attempted to unite with Germany, but the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint Germain prohibited this.

In the 1920s, the proposal for unification gained strong support in both Austria and Germany, particularly from Austrian citizens of the political left and center. However, this popularity faded over time. After Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany in 1933, the desire for unification became associated with the Nazis, who saw it as an integral part of their "Heim ins Reich" ("back home to the realm") concept.

In early 1938, Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg announced a referendum on unification with Germany, to be held on March 13. However, under pressure from Hitler, Schuschnigg resigned on March 11, and the German Army crossed the border into Austria on March 12. A plebiscite held on April 10, 1938, resulted in a manipulated vote of 99.7% approval for the Anschluss.

The annexation of Austria was a significant breach of the post-World War I international order and demonstrated Nazi Germany's aggressive territorial ambitions. It was the first step in Hitler's plan to create a Greater German Reich, which included all ethnic Germans and the territories lost after World War I. The failure of the international community to intervene or punish Nazi Germany for violating international treaties emboldened Hitler to continue his expansionist policies, leading to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.

The unification of Germany and Austria was prohibited by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye

The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, signed on 10 September 1919, officially registered the breakup of the Habsburg Empire, recognising the independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and Yugoslavia (Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes). The treaty was signed by representatives of Austria and the Allied Powers, coming into force on 16 July 1920.

The unification of Germany and Austria was prohibited by the treaty, which expressly forbade the union of Austria with Germany without the consent of the Council of the League of Nations. This was due to the desire to avoid a dominant German state, as the majority in both countries wanted unification. The treaty also included war reparations, with large sums of money directed towards the Allies, and provisions for the liquidation of the Austro-Hungarian Bank.

Austria suffered significant territorial losses, losing over 60% of its pre-war territory, including South Tyrol and Trentino to Italy, and eastern Galicia, southern Tirol, Trieste, and Istria to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslavia). The treaty also stripped Austria of some of its territories, such as the Sudetenland. The Allies allowed the minority peoples of Austria-Hungary to help create new states, such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, or join their ethnic brethren in existing nation-states, such as Romania and Italy.

The treaty had a significant impact on Austria, leaving it financially and militarily weak, and a force of instability in Europe between the two World Wars. The new Republic of Austria, consisting mostly of German-speaking Danubian and Alpine provinces, was a rump state compared to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The vast reduction in population, territory, and resources wreaked havoc on the economy, especially in Vienna, which was now an imperial capital without an empire.

The unification was also prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles, signed on 28 June 1919, was the primary treaty produced by the Paris Peace Conference at the end of World War I. The treaty prohibited the unification of Germany and Austria.

The unification of Germany and Austria was prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on 28 June 1919, and went into effect on 10 January 1920. The treaty was drafted by the "Big Four", who were the national leaders of the United States, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy. The treaty gave some German territories to neighbouring countries and placed other German territories under international supervision. It also stripped Germany of its overseas colonies and severely restricted its military capabilities.

The Treaty of Versailles required Germany to accept responsibility for causing all the damage of the war and to pay an unspecified amount of money in reparations to the Allied countries. The treaty also created the League of Nations.

The unification of Germany and Austria was prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles for several reasons. Firstly, the treaty reduced the population and territory of Germany by about 10%. This included the transfer of territories in eastern Germany to a reconstituted Poland and the creation of a "corridor" to the Baltic Sea, which separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany. Additionally, the treaty placed restrictions on Germany's military capabilities and stripped the country of its overseas colonies.

The Treaty of Versailles also prohibited the unification of Germany and Austria to ensure that Germany would not pose a threat to its neighbouring countries in the future. The treaty gave Alsace and Lorraine in the west to France and placed Saarland under the supervision of the League of Nations until 1935. These territorial changes reduced Germany's ability to threaten or invade its neighbours.

Furthermore, the Treaty of Versailles prohibited the unification of Germany and Austria to promote stability in Europe and prevent future conflicts. The treaty created a balance of power in Europe by limiting Germany's military strength and placing its territories under international supervision. This balance of power was intended to deter German aggression and maintain peace in the region.

The prohibition of unification was also influenced by the desire to punish Germany for its role in World War I. The "war guilt" clause of the treaty required Germany to accept responsibility for causing the damage of the war and to pay reparations. This clause was included to hold Germany accountable for the war and compensate the Allied countries for their losses.

The unification was supported by the majority of the German-Austrian people

The unification of Germany and Austria, or the Anschluss, was supported by the majority of German-Austrian people. This was due to several reasons, including shared history and culture, with German being the official language in both countries, and Germans being the major ethnic group in both.

The idea of a unified Germany and Austria, or a “Greater Germany”, was not a new one. It had been a topic of debate since the 19th century, especially during the Revolutions of 1848, and was known as the “German question”. The Großdeutsche Lösung, or "Greater German solution", promoted by the Austrian Empire and its supporters, favoured unifying all German-speaking peoples under one state. This was in contrast to the Kleindeutsche Lösung, or "Lesser German solution", which sought to unify only the northern German states and exclude Austria. The Großdeutsche Lösung was generally favoured by Catholics and southern states, as it implied a dominant position for Catholic Austria, while the Kleindeutsche Lösung was preferred by Protestant, northern German states as it meant the unification would be led by the Protestant House of Hohenzollern.

After World War I, the idea of unification gained support as the Republic of German-Austria attempted to form a union with Germany. This was forbidden by the 1919 Treaty of Saint Germain and Treaty of Versailles, which also stripped Austria of some of its territories, leaving it economically unstable. By the 1920s, the proposal for unification had strong support in both Austria and Germany, particularly among Austrian citizens of the political left and centre. Support for unification came mainly from the belief that Austria, stripped of its imperial land, was not economically viable.

In 1938, the unification of Germany and Austria was completed by Nazi Germany, led by Austrian-born Adolf Hitler. This was met with overwhelming approval by the German-Austrian people and was confirmed by a referendum shortly after. However, it is important to note that the referendum was not secret, and threats and coercion were employed to manipulate the vote, resulting in 99.7% approval for the unification. While the true opinions of the population are unknown, it has been estimated that about 70% of Austrians would have voted to preserve Austrian independence.

The unification was opposed by Benito Mussolini's Fascist Italy

The unification of Germany and Austria, known as the Anschluss, was opposed by Benito Mussolini's Fascist Italy. Mussolini, who was initially a socialist, founded the National Fascist Party and became the Prime Minister of Italy in 1922. He was a dictator who ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943.

Mussolini's opposition to the unification was driven by his fear of Hitler's retrospective territorial demands on South Tyrol, which Italy had lost to Austria in 1919. Mussolini forged an alliance with Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg, his Austrian counterparts, to protect Austrian independence. In 1936, Mussolini forced Hitler to renounce all claims to Austria. However, after 1936, Mussolini and Hitler grew closer in preparation for Germany's expansionist ambitions. Hitler used the Nazi Party of Austria to influence public opinion and staged a coup against the Austrian Fascist government in 1938. Mussolini abandoned his pledge to protect Austrian independence when Hitler decided to refrain from reclaiming South Tyrol.

Mussolini's support for Austrian independence was also influenced by his concern that Hitler would eventually press for the return of Italian territories once ruled by Austria. Mussolini needed German support in Ethiopia, so he entered into a client relationship with Berlin, which began with the formation of the Berlin-Rome Axis in 1937.

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