Austria-Hungary's Post-Wwi Fate: Intact Empire?

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was dismantled after World War I, leading to the creation of several independent nations, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. This collapse was part of a larger trend where several empires were reshaped or dissolved, including the Russian and Ottoman Empires. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and the Treaty of Trianon (1920) were responsible for the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with the latter establishing the new nation-states.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire's collapse

The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire came about as a result of the First World War. The Dual Monarchy emerged from the conflict split in half, with its two constituent parts permanently separated. The territories of the Empire were broken up into smaller independent states.

The end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was foreshadowed by the Revolutions of 1848, which saw civil unrest and a mass exodus of Czech and Slovak people. The Springtime Revolutions, driven by a desire for democratic freedoms, ultimately failed, but they allowed the Monarchy to cement its rule over the Austrian and Hungarian states. In 1866, the Austro-Prussian War resulted in the formation of the North German Confederation and the swift end of Austrian occupation of German territory. The Austrian Empire was forced to strike a bargain with Hungary, leading to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which established a complex dual-monarchy.

The decline of the Empire was precipitated by the loss of possible heirs to the throne, which weakened monarchical power. Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908 angered Serbian and Pan-Slav nationalists and heightened tensions in the region. In 1914, while in Sarajevo, Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by the Black Hand Society, a shadow company within the Serbian Military. This assassination proved to be the catalyst for World War I, which began a month later on July 28, 1914.

During the war, the Austro-Hungarian government proposed a general peace conference, but this was rejected by the United States. When Austria-Hungary appealed for an armistice based on the Wilsonian peace pronouncements, they were denied, as the U.S. was committed to supporting the Czechoslovaks and the Yugoslavs. Emperor Charles granted autonomy to the peoples of the Austrian Empire on October 16, 1918, but this concession was ignored internationally and only served to accelerate the Empire's disintegration.

The final months of 1918 saw a rapid succession of events that sealed the Empire's fate. On October 24, a Hungarian National Council was set up in Budapest, advocating for peace and separation from Austria. On October 28, the Czechoslovak National Council took over the administration of Bohemia and proclaimed an independent Czechoslovak state. The following day, the Croatian diet (Sabor) announced Croatia's separation from Austria-Hungary, and the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs was proclaimed in Zagreb. On October 30, German members of the Reichsrat in Vienna proclaimed an independent state of German Austria.

The armistice between the Allies and Austria-Hungary was signed on November 3, 1918, and became effective the following day. The Empire's forces were required to evacuate occupied territories and allow the Allies free use of their internal communications. Emperor Charles renounced his right to participate in Austrian and Hungarian affairs, and the process of dissolution was set in motion. The newly formed Republic of Austria was forced to recognize the independence of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and the Kingdom of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs.

The creation of new nation-states

The collapse of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, along with the German, Russian, and Ottoman Empires, led to the creation of several new nation-states in Eastern Europe and the Middle East. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and the Treaty of Trianon (1920) led to the formation of Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia from the former dual monarchy. The Kingdom of Serbia, which suffered the most casualties per capita, became the backbone of the new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, a new nation, combined the Kingdom of Bohemia with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary.

The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire was a pivotal milestone in the creation of the modern Middle East. The core of the empire was transformed into the Republic of Turkey, while other territories were distributed among various nations, including British and French mandates. The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) and the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) oversaw the partitioning of the Ottoman territories.

Poland re-emerged as an independent country 123 years after losing its independence. Romania united all Romanian-speaking peoples under a single state, leading to Greater Romania. The Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania gained independence, only to be occupied again by the Soviet Union in 1940. Finland gained lasting independence but repeatedly had to defend its borders against Soviet incursions.

The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the other great powers of Europe led to a significant redrawing of borders and the creation of numerous new nation-states, with far-reaching consequences for the region.

The role of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Trianon

The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Trianon were two treaties that led to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I. Signed on 10 September 1919, the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye was an agreement between the victorious Allies of World War I and the Republic of German-Austria. The treaty recognised the independence of several nations, including Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia, and imposed significant territorial losses on Austria, amounting to over 60% of the prewar Austrian Empire's territory. Additionally, the treaty included provisions for war reparations and the liquidation of the Austro-Hungarian Bank.

The Treaty of Trianon, signed on 4 June 1920, was an agreement between Hungary and the Allied and Associated Powers. This treaty formally terminated the state of war between Hungary and most of the Allies of World War I and recognised Hungary's new international borders. As a result, Hungary lost more than two-thirds of its territory and two-thirds of its population. Czechoslovakia, Austria, Yugoslavia, Romania, and Italy all gained territories formerly held by Hungary. The treaty also limited Hungary's armed forces to 35,000 men and included provisions for war reparations.

Both treaties played a crucial role in reshaping the political and geographical landscape of Central Europe, leading to the creation of several independent nations and significantly reducing the size and influence of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. The treaties also sowed the seeds of resentment and ethnic conflict in the region, as many Hungarians opposed the displacement of ethnic Magyars and the violation of the principle of self-determination.

The impact of the war on the Ottoman Empire

The impact of World War I on the Ottoman Empire was significant, ultimately leading to its dissolution in 1922. The empire entered the war on the side of the Central Powers, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria. The war efforts strained the empire's resources, which were already depleted due to the cost of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913.

On October 29, 1914, the Ottoman Empire launched a surprise attack on the Black Sea coast of Russia, marking its entry into World War I. This prompted Russia to declare war on the Ottoman Empire on November 2, 1914, followed by Britain and France on November 5. The Ottomans fought against the Entente in the Balkans and the Middle Eastern theatre of the war.

The Ottoman Empire's defeat in 1918 played a crucial role in its eventual dissolution. The war efforts had a significant financial toll, with expenses amounting to 398.5 million Ottoman Lira, leading to bankruptcy by 1918. The empire also suffered heavy casualties, with 325,000 killed in action and hundreds of thousands more dying from diseases or other causes. Additionally, 202,000 men were taken prisoner, and a significant number of soldiers deserted, turning to banditry.

The war also had a significant impact on the empire's domestic situation. There were conspiracies and revolts against the Germans and the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), and the empire faced mutinies among its soldiers and naval crews. The war tested the empire's relations with its Arab population, and there were executions and deportations of leading Arabs, as well as a famine in Syria.

The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) and the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) led to the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The core of the empire became the Republic of Turkey, while other territories were distributed among various nations.

The war also marked the end of the caliphate, as the Ottoman Empire surrendered by agreeing to punitive conditions, which were later overturned by Mustafa Kemal, a secularist who went on to abolish the caliphate. The war's impact extended beyond the political and territorial changes, as the Ottoman Empire engaged in genocides against local ethnicities, most notably the Armenian Genocide, which resulted in the deaths of approximately 1.5 million Armenians.

National self-determination and its influence on post-war borders

The collapse of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire at the end of World War I was a pivotal moment in the history of Europe, leading to the creation of several independent nations. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and the Treaty of Trianon (1920) led to the formation of Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. This period also witnessed the emergence of new conflicts and hostilities in the region, as the newly created countries often had substantial ethnic minorities who aspired to unite with neighbouring states where their ethnicity dominated.

The principle of national self-determination, which grants peoples the right to freely choose their sovereignty and international political status without interference, played a significant role in shaping the post-war borders of Europe. This concept, rooted in the American and French revolutions, gained prominence during and after World War I, championed by leaders such as Soviet Premier Vladimir Lenin and United States President Woodrow Wilson. Wilson's Fourteen Points, announced in January 1918, emphasised respect for national aspirations and the right of peoples to consent to their governance, marking a shift towards self-determination as a guiding principle for redrawing European maps.

The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the creation of new states by the Allies, such as Czechoslovakia and the union of the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs with the Kingdom of Serbia, exemplified the application of self-determination. However, the imposition of states where certain nationalities dominated others, particularly Poles, Czechs, Serbs, and Romanians, contributed to tensions and ultimately led to World War II. The complex ethnic landscape of the region and the aspirations of various nationalities to unite with their kin in neighbouring states influenced the drawing of new borders.

The concept of self-determination also had a significant impact on the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, leading to the creation of the modern Middle East. The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) and the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) resulted in the partitioning of the Ottoman territories, with the emergence of the Republic of Turkey and the distribution of other territories among various nations. The League of Nations was tasked with legitimising the territorial boundaries of the new nation-states created from the former Ottoman Empire, facing the challenge of accommodating the diverse ethnic groups within the region.

In summary, national self-determination played a pivotal role in shaping the post-World War I borders of Europe and the Middle East. The dissolution of empires, such as the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires, led to the creation of new nations with diverse ethnic compositions. The aspirations of national groups for self-governance and unity with their kin influenced the drawing of new borders, often resulting in political instability and conflict. The complex interplay between self-determination and territorial integrity continues to shape international relations and the quest for a harmonious global order.

Frequently asked questions