Austria-Hungary: Marx's Ideas Discredited?

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was a military and diplomatic alliance of two sovereign states, Austria and Hungary, with a single monarch. The empire was the third most populous country in Europe and among the ten most populous countries worldwide. It was also one of the major powers of its time, with the fourth-largest machine-building industry in the world.

The empire was formed after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which established a dual monarchy and ended the 18-year-long military dictatorship and absolutist rule over Hungary. The Compromise put an end to the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, which had sought to end ties with the Austrian Empire.

The Austro-Marxist movement, led by members of the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria, sought to synthesise social democracy and revolutionary socialism. This movement was responsible for guiding many of the municipal programs instituted by the Gemeinderat (Municipal Council) of Vienna after World War I.

The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was catalysed by World War I, the 1918 crop failure, starvation, and an economic crisis. The Allied victory in the war, along with the October Revolution and the Wilsonian peace pronouncements, encouraged socialism and nationalism among the peoples of the empire. The multi-ethnic empire started to disintegrate as nationalist movements pressed for full independence. The Hungarian Parliament voted to terminate the union with Austria on 17 October 1918, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian monarchy.

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867

The Compromise was the result of negotiations between Hungarian political leaders and the central government in Vienna, following the Austrian defeat in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. The Hungarians sought to regain their traditional legal and political status and to restore the April Laws, a series of reforms based on 12 points that established civil and political rights and economic and societal reforms in Hungary.

Under the Compromise, the two states conducted unified diplomatic and defence policies, with "common" ministries of foreign affairs and defence under the direct authority of the monarch. A third finance ministry was responsible for financing these "common" portfolios. The Austrian and Hungarian states were governed by separate parliaments and prime ministers, and each retained its own legal and judicial system. The Compromise also included a settlement with Croatia, which remained part of the Hungarian crown but enjoyed full internal autonomy.

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise was unpopular among ethnic Hungarian voters, who saw it as a betrayal of Hungarian interests and the achievements of the 1848 Revolution. However, it was supported by ethnic minority voters in the Kingdom of Hungary, leading to the continued political maintenance of the Compromise and the dual monarchy.

The Compromise turned the Habsburg domains into a real union, with each part of the monarchy having its own government, while common national security and foreign relations were managed jointly. This arrangement lasted until the dissolution of the dual monarchy after World War I.

The role of Emperor Franz Joseph I

Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary was instrumental in shaping the political landscape of the empire and played a pivotal role in the Compromise of 1867, which established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Here is an overview of his role:

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867:

Emperor Franz Joseph I was a key figure in the formation of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, which created a dual monarchy consisting of two sovereign states, the Empire of Austria (Cisleithania) and the Kingdom of Hungary (Transleithania). This compromise ended an 18-year-long military dictatorship and absolutist rule over Hungary, restoring the Kingdom of Hungary's territorial integrity and its historic constitution. The compromise also re-established the legal and political status of the Hungarian state, which had been lost after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.

Restoring Hungarian Rights:

Franz Joseph played a crucial role in restoring the April Laws of the Hungarian revolutionary parliament, which established modern civil and political rights and economic reforms in Hungary. He also agreed to the restoration of the Hungarian parliament, which had been the supreme legislative power in Hungary before 1849.

A Real Union:

The Compromise of 1867 created a real union between Austria and Hungary, with a single monarch, Emperor Franz Joseph I, reigning as Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. This union was a diplomatic and military alliance, with common ministries of foreign affairs, defence, and finance under the monarch's direct authority.

Hungarian Autonomy:

Franz Joseph's role in the Compromise of 1867 granted significant autonomy to Hungary within the dual monarchy. Hungary had its own government, parliament, and prime minister, with separate legislative and executive powers. This autonomy allowed Hungary to maintain its own legal, judicial, and educational systems, as well as control over internal affairs.

Foreign Policy and Defence:

Emperor Franz Joseph I, as the head of the dual monarchy, had direct authority over foreign policy and defence. He maintained unified diplomatic and defence policies for both Austria and Hungary, ensuring their alliance in these critical areas.

Economic and Monetary Union:

The Compromise of 1867 also established an economic and monetary union between Austria and Hungary. This included a common finance ministry responsible for expenditures related to the common army, navy, and diplomatic service. Additionally, a customs union was formed, with negotiations taking place every ten years to determine the financial contributions of each country.

Impact on the Region:

The Compromise of 1867 had a significant impact on the region, as it reshaped the relationship between Austria and Hungary. It ended the personal union that had existed before the compromise, reducing Hungary's status to a partnership in the real union. This compromise was unpopular among ethnic Hungarian voters, who felt it betrayed Hungarian interests and the achievements of the 1848 revolution.

In summary, Emperor Franz Joseph I's role in the Compromise of 1867 was pivotal in shaping the political structure of Austria-Hungary. He restored Hungarian rights and autonomy while maintaining a unified foreign policy and defence alliance. His decisions had a lasting impact on the region, and his role as the head of the dual monarchy was central to the functioning of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until its dissolution in 1918.

The Hungarian Revolution of 1848

In the early 1830s, a reformist group led by Ferenc Deák came to power in the Hungarian Parliament (Diet). Some of its members looked to the United States as a model, particularly for its jury trial system and religious tolerance. At the same time, a group of "Dietal Youth" began to attend the sessions, including Lajos Kossuth, a lawyer appointed as a delegate in the absence of a baron. In 1841, Kossuth started a new political journal, Pesti Hírlap, which exposed social injustice and called for reforms, sometimes based on the "capitalism and political liberalism" of Western Europe and the United States.

In March 1848, caught up in the revolutionary fervour that had seized France, Kossuth urged the Diet to send the opposition's demands to the Habsburg court. The opposition sought "responsible and representative government and civil liberties in a de-feudalised Hungary", as well as "freedom of the press and full equality before the law". On March 13, students and workers demonstrated in Vienna, forcing Chancellor Clemens von Metternich from power. On March 15, thousands of students marched in Pest, and disturbances spread around the country.

On March 18, Emperor Ferdinand agreed to the Diet's demands: Hungary would remain part of the Empire through a "personal union" with the emperor, and a constitutional government would be established. A new Hungarian cabinet was formed, led by Count Lajos Batthyány, with Deák as Justice Minister and Kossuth as the Minister of Finance. The Diet passed the April Laws, which provided for a hereditary constitutional monarchy, a legislature, equality before the law, and an end to restrictions on land use and transfer. However, power was limited to the Hungarians, and while most Hungarians supported these changes, the non-Hungarian minorities felt threatened.

The new Hungarian Government set about strengthening its military forces, as did the newly appointed leader of Croatia, Josip Jelacic, who was loyal to the Habsburgs. In June, a parliament was elected. In August, the Batthyány Government announced its refusal to support Vienna in the event of a war with Frankfurt, and at the end of the month, Vienna announced that the April Laws were not valid. The Croatian army crossed into Hungary but was stopped by the Hungarian army on September 29 near Pákozd. On October 3, Vienna issued decrees dissolving the Hungarian parliament and installed Jelacic as a royal commissar in charge of Hungary. In response, the Hungarian legislature created a National Defense Committee headed by Kossuth.

On January 1, 1849, the Hungarian revolutionary government was forced to evacuate from Pest-Buda and moved to Debrecen, bringing with it the crown of St. Stephen. Fighting continued throughout the spring, and on April 14, Hungary proclaimed itself an independent republic. The Parliament then elected Kossuth as its President. In early May, the Habsburg ruler appealed to the Russian Tsar for military assistance, which came in the form of 200,000 Russian troops. The Hungarian struggle for independence came to an end after the victories of the Austrian army in Italy gave the court in Vienna more room for manoeuvre. The young Emperor Franz Joseph appealed to Russia for assistance, and Tsar Nicholas I agreed immediately, as the news of the revolution in Hungary had already inflamed the situation in Russian-occupied Poland. The Hungarian war of independence ended on August 13, 1849, with the capitulation of the revolutionary army in Világos near Arad.

The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire

Background

The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Dual Monarchy, was a constitutional monarchy in Central Europe consisting of two sovereign states: the Empire of Austria (Cisleithania) and the Kingdom of Hungary (Transleithania). It was formed in 1867 through the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, which established a dual monarchy with a single monarch, Emperor Franz Joseph I, who reigned as both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary.

Causes of Collapse

• World War I: The Empire's involvement in World War I as one of the Central Powers significantly weakened it. The war effort strained the economy, and the multi-ethnic army suffered morale and discipline issues.
• Economic Crisis: By 1918, the Empire's economy had deteriorated, with food shortages, starvation, and an economic crisis affecting the population.
• Nationalism and Ethnic Tensions: The Empire was composed of multiple ethnic groups, and nationalist movements gained momentum during the war, seeking independence or greater autonomy. This led to internal social contradictions and separatism.
• Political Unrest: Leftist and pacifist political movements organized strikes and uprisings, and the liberal and leftist parties opposed the monarchy.
• Weakened Monarchy: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 left the Empire without a suitable heir, and Emperor Karl I struggled to maintain power.
• External Pressures: The October Revolution in Russia and Wilsonian peace pronouncements encouraged socialism and nationalism within the Empire.
• Crop Failure: The crop failure of 1918 further exacerbated the economic and social crisis, leading to widespread starvation.

Timeline of Collapse

• October 16, 1918: Emperor Charles I signs the "Peoples Manifesto," transforming the empire into a federation of autonomous national states. However, politicians from other nationalities sought full sovereignty rather than autonomy.
• October 24, 1918: The Hungarian Diet in Budapest announces the end of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.
• October 28, 1918: The Czechoslovak National Council takes over administration in Prague, marking the creation of an independent Czechoslovak state.
• October 29, 1918: The National Council of Moravia takes over military command from Austrian representatives, and the Croatian Diet announces Croatia's separation from the Empire. The State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs is proclaimed, claiming South Slavic territories.
• October 31, 1918: The Hungarian government officially repudiates the compromise agreement, dissolving the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and state.
• November 1, 1918: Emperor Karl I issues a proclamation recognizing the Austrian people's right to determine their form of government and relinquishing his participation in Austrian state affairs.
• November 11, 1918: Emperor Karl I issues a similar proclamation for Hungary, effectively ending Habsburg rule.

Aftermath

The impact of World War I

Political and Territorial Changes

World War I led to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was already weakened by internal social contradictions and widening gaps between Hungarian and Austrian interests. The war accelerated this process, and the empire was dissolved shortly after Hungary terminated the union with Austria on October 31, 1918. The remaining territories inhabited by divided peoples fell into the composition of existing or newly formed states, leading to significant political and territorial changes.

Economic Crisis and Starvation

The war had a devastating impact on the economy of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. By 1918, the economic situation had deteriorated, with food shortages, starvation, and an economic crisis affecting the empire. The multi-ethnic army lost morale as their home front suffered, and nationalist movements within the empire gained momentum, further contributing to its disintegration.

Social and Cultural Impact

The war intensified traditional religion-based ethnic hostilities in Bosnia and other parts of the empire. Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were organized in Sarajevo and other cities, with Catholic Croats and Bosnian Muslims targeting Serb-owned buildings and killing Serbs. Additionally, Austro-Hungarian authorities imprisoned and extradited thousands of prominent Serbs, contributing to the tensions.

Rise of Socialist and Nationalist Movements

The October Revolution of 1917 and the Wilsonian peace pronouncements encouraged socialism and nationalism among the peoples of the Habsburg monarchy. Leftist and pacifist political movements organized strikes and uprisings, and the leftist and liberal movements in Vienna and Budapest supported the separatism of ethnic minorities. The war also fueled nationalist movements, which initially called for greater autonomy and eventually pressed for full independence as the war progressed.

Shifting Global Power Dynamics

World War I significantly altered the global power dynamics. The war weakened the Austro-Hungarian Empire, one of Europe's major powers at the time, and led to its dissolution. The victorious powers in 1920 recognized the independence of several new states, including the First Czechoslovak Republic, the Second Polish Republic, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The war also set the stage for the rise of Hitler and the Holocaust, as well as the Russian Revolution and the emergence of communist regimes.

Scientific and Technological Advancements

Despite the devastation, World War I also accelerated scientific and technological advancements. The war prompted innovations in areas such as telecommunications, aviation, and medicine. Additionally, the war efforts led to the development of new weapons and military technologies, which had a lasting impact on global conflict and security.

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