Austria-Russia Conflict: Did They Go To War?

The Russian and Austrian Empires had a complex relationship, characterised by both conflict and alliance. While the two nations were allies during the Napoleonic Wars, they also fought against each other during World War I, with Russia supporting Serbia, and Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia. This conflict can be traced back to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Serbian-backed terrorist. This event sparked a series of political and military decisions that escalated tensions and ultimately led to the outbreak of World War I.

Russia and Austria's involvement in the Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars were a series of military campaigns led by Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, from 1803 to 1815. The wars were fought against a shifting set of European powers, including Austria and Russia, and resulted in the rise of the French Empire and the expansion of its influence across much of Western Europe.

Austria and Russia were both involved in the Napoleonic Wars, with their participation driven by a shared desire to defend monarchical Europe and counter the expansion of French influence. However, their involvement differed in several ways.

Austria's involvement in the Napoleonic Wars was marked by a series of military defeats and shifting alliances. Initially, Austria joined forces with Russia and other European powers, such as Britain, Prussia, and Spain, in the First and Second Coalitions against France. Despite their efforts, these coalitions were defeated by Napoleon's forces in 1797 and 1801, respectively.

In 1805, Austria went to war with France again, this time as part of the Third Coalition. Napoleon's strategic maneuvers, including the famous Ulm Campaign, led to the surrender of an Austrian army at Ulm and the fall of Vienna. The Battle of Austerlitz, which took place near the town of Austerlitz in the Austrian Empire (now Slavkov u Brna in the Czech Republic), was a decisive victory for Napoleon and marked the end of the War of the Third Coalition. Austria was forced to sign the Treaty of Pressburg, ceding territories to France and its allies.

In 1809, Austria once again found itself at war with France during the War of the Fifth Coalition. Archduke Charles of Austria led the Austrian army to their first victory over Napoleon at the Battle of Aspern. However, Napoleon quickly regrouped and defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Wagram. The Treaty of Schönbrunn that followed resulted in further territorial losses for Austria.

Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian foreign minister, sought to accommodate Napoleon and arranged the marriage of Marie-Louise, daughter of the Austrian Emperor, to Napoleon. Despite this gesture, Austria eventually joined forces with the allies against Napoleon in 1813, providing the largest number of troops and their commander, Karl Philipp, Fürst zu Schwarzenberg.

Russia's involvement in the Napoleonic Wars was driven by a desire to maintain its influence in Europe and counter French expansionism. Russia initially formed an alliance with Austria and other European powers during the First and Second Coalitions but later pursued its interests through separate campaigns.

In 1812, Napoleon led the French invasion of Russia, also known as the Russian Campaign or the Patriotic War of 1812. Napoleon aimed to compel Russia to comply with the Continental Blockade against the United Kingdom. The French army, known as the Grande Armée, crossed the Neman River and advanced through Western Russia, facing Russian forces led by Barclay de Tolly and Pyotr Bagration. Despite initial victories, such as the Battle of Smolensk, Napoleon's army suffered significant losses due to extreme weather conditions, diseases, and supply issues. The Russian army employed a strategic retreat, using attrition warfare to weaken the French forces.

The Battle of Borodino, fought near Moscow, was a pivotal moment in the campaign, with both armies suffering heavy casualties. Napoleon occupied Moscow but was unable to force a decisive victory. The Russian army, under the command of Mikhail Kutuzov, employed scorched-earth tactics and retreated, forcing Napoleon to retreat. The harsh Russian winter, guerrilla warfare by Russian peasants and Cossacks, and supply shortages took a heavy toll on the retreating French army, resulting in significant losses.

The French invasion of Russia ended in failure, and Napoleon's once-untarnished reputation was shattered. The defeat marked a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars, leading to Napoleon's exile to the island of Elba in 1814.

The Crimean War

The origins of the war can be traced back to Russia's occupation of the Danubian Principalities in 1853, which sparked negotiations between the European powers. Austria-Hungary, Britain, and France drafted the Vienna Note, which accepted Russia's legitimate claims to the Ottoman-Christian territories while upholding the authority of the Sultan. While Tsar Nicholas I initially accepted this offer, the Turks demanded changes that would have made the final Note unacceptable to the Russians. The Western Powers then issued an ultimatum demanding that Russia leave the Danubian Principalities by April 30th, 1854. When the tsar made no reply, Britain and France declared war on March 27th, 1854.

Austria-Hungary's role in the negotiations was critical. Count Orlov, a prominent Russian diplomat, was dispatched to Vienna to secure Austrian neutrality, even offering to guarantee Austrian integrity from French hostilities. However, Emperor Franz Joseph and Austrian Foreign Minister Count Karl Ferdinand von Buol insisted that Russian troops not cross the Danube, as this would incite further reason for Austria to side with the Western Powers. Ultimately, Austria-Hungary's support for the ultimatum turned out to be only diplomatic, not military, in nature.

Austria-Hungary's neutrality during the war strained its relations with both sides. While it did not openly support the Western Powers, its betrayal of Russia meant that it was now surrounded by potential enemies. In 1855, Austrian Foreign Minister Buol further alienated Austria-Hungary from Russia by issuing an ultimatum demanding that Russia accept Anglo-French peace terms or face war with the Dual Monarchy.

Although Austria-Hungary did not actively participate in the Crimean War, its stance had significant diplomatic repercussions, ultimately contributing to its isolation and setting the stage for future conflicts with Russia.

The Bosnian Crisis of 1908-09

In 1878, Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina with the agreement of the rest of Europe (Treaty of Berlin). These were the two most north-western provinces of the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary signed an agreement that the Sultan's sovereignty over the area would be upheld. However, few expected this to be the case, and Austria-Hungary quickly made plans to annex the provinces. This caused tension with Russia, as the provinces were geographically and ethnically linked to Serbia, which was closely aligned with Russia.

The crisis was caused by the ambitions of the foreign ministers of Austria and Russia, Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal and Alexander Izvolsky, respectively. Both were motivated by political ambition, and their actions would bring Europe to the brink of war in 1909.

Aehrenthal wanted full control of Bosnia and Herzegovina through annexation, even though Austria-Hungary had only been administering the provinces since 1878. He reasoned that now was the time to act, as the "Young Turk" revolution of 1908, led by Enver Pasha, had convinced some that the Ottoman Empire was on the rise again. Aehrenthal wanted to ensure the Russians would not interfere with these annexation plans.

Izvolsky, meanwhile, wanted to change the terms of the Treaty of Berlin, which prevented the passage of warships of any country through the Dardanelles, controlled by Turkey. This had bottled up a portion of the Russian fleet, which could have been used in the Russo-Japanese War. Izvolsky wanted to allow the passage of only Russian ships through the straits, giving Russia a Mediterranean presence and helping to restore prestige after their defeat by Japan.

The two ministers met on 16 or 19 September 1908 and agreed that Izvolsky would ignore the annexation, and in return, Aehrenthal would back the opening of the Dardanelles to Russian warships. Bulgaria would also declare its independence from Turkey, and the Austrians would give up some territory in the Balkans to appease Serbia.

Aehrenthal acted quickly, annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina on 6 or 7 October 1908. This outraged Serbia, which demanded Russian intervention. Izvolsky announced his plans for the free passage of Russian warships, but this was rejected by the other signatories to the treaty, especially Britain.

The situation escalated, with Germany ultimately siding with Austria, and Russia, not wanting to go to war with Germany and Austria, was forced to back down. Serbia also backed down, declaring publicly that the annexation was none of its business. However, the crisis resulted in bitter relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary and resentment from Russia, which contributed to the outbreak of World War One.

The Eastern Question

The eventual distribution of the Ottoman territories was as follows: the Balkan provinces emerged as independent states, often under the influence of Russia or another great power; Britain occupied Cyprus in 1878 and Egypt in 1882, and acquired Palestine and Iraq as mandates after World War I; and France took over Syria and Lebanon in 1920. Turkey, the heart of the Ottoman state, won recognition as an independent republic in 1923.

World War I

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, on June 28, 1914, is often regarded as the catalyst for World War I. Austria-Hungary accused Serbia of orchestrating the assassination and issued an ultimatum, threatening invasion. This prompted Russia to come to Serbia's aid, rapidly mobilising its forces, which resulted in significant losses and internal unrest.

The Eastern Front saw the Central Powers, with over 2.5 million troops, face a disorganised Russian force of 4 million. By the end of World War I, four empires, including the Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires, had fallen, reshaping the global order.

Austria-Hungary and Russia had a history of complex relations, characterised by shifting alliances and conflicts. During and after the Napoleonic Wars, the two empires were closely allied, with Russia supporting Austria during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848-1849. However, their relationship deteriorated during the Crimean War (1853-1856) when Austria-Hungary remained neutral and sided with France, Britain, and the Ottomans. This marked a significant shift in their alliance, driven by competing interests and geopolitical considerations.

In the late 19th century, the "Eastern Question" regarding the weakening Ottoman Empire's fate and its rebellious Christian subjects further strained relations. Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia in 1908 and its ambitions to dominate the Slavic people in Southeast Europe clashed with Russia's pan-Slavic aspirations and desire to maintain influence in the Balkans. The Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909, during which Austria-Hungary declared its annexation of Bosnia, outraged Serbia and Russia, who viewed it as an infringement on Slavic independence. This crisis permanently damaged relations between the two empires, paving the way for future conflicts.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 served as the spark that ignited World War I. Austria-Hungary, with German encouragement, declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Russia's support for Serbia brought France into the conflict, and Germany subsequently declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914. The mobilisation of Russian forces raised concerns in Germany, which feared encirclement by the Triple Entente of France, Russia, and Britain. Germany's invasion of Belgium on August 4, 1914, prompted Britain to join the war, marking the beginning of a global conflict.

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