Austria's Military Post-Ww1: What Could Have Been?

The Austro-Hungarian Empire's military capabilities were severely weakened following its defeat in World War I. The empire was dissolved, resulting in the formation of the First Austrian Republic. The Republic faced significant economic challenges, including food shortages and a lack of industrial development. Additionally, the Republic experienced violent political strife between left-wing and right-wing groups, leading to the Austrian Civil War in 1934. During World War II, Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany, but it was later occupied by the Allies and regained its independence. However, the Republic's ability to maintain a military force was limited due to its small size and the terms of the peace treaties.

The First Austrian Republic

The Republic's constitution was enacted on 1 October 1920, establishing a bi-cameral legislature with a Federal Council and a National Council. The Federal President was elected for a four-year term, while the Chancellor was elected by the National Council. However, no single party ever gained a parliamentary majority, resulting in coalitions between conservative parties.

The Republic's politics were dominated by the anti-Anschluss Christian Social Party, which had close ties to the Roman Catholic Church. The party's first Chancellor, Ignaz Seipel, sought to forge an alliance between wealthy industrialists and the Church. However, the country continued to face economic challenges, including the Great Depression, which hit Austria hard.

In 1932, Engelbert Dollfuss of the Christian Social Party became Chancellor and moved the country towards dictatorship and fascism. He suspended parliament and established the Fatherland Front, an outwardly fascist but predominantly Catholic organisation. Dollfuss's regime faced competition from the growing Austrian Nazi Party, which sought to unite Austria with Germany. This tension escalated into the Austrian Civil War of 1934 between Social Democrats and government forces, resulting in the Social Democrats being banned and the creation of a one-party state led by the Fatherland Front.

The Anschluss

After World War I, the Republic of German-Austria attempted to unite with Germany, but the Treaty of Saint Germain and the Treaty of Versailles forbade this. The treaties also stripped Austria of some of its territories, such as the Sudetenland, leaving it without most of the lands it had ruled over for centuries and amid an economic crisis.

By the 1920s, the proposal for a union, or Anschluss, had strong support in both Austria and Germany, particularly among Austrian citizens of the political left and center. However, support for unification faded over time, although it remained a concept in contemporary Austrian political discourse.

After Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany in 1933, the desire for unification was associated with the Nazis, for whom it was an integral part of their "Heim ins Reich" ("back home to the realm") concept. In early 1938, under pressure from pro-unification activists, Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg announced a referendum on a possible union with Germany, to be held on March 13. Hitler threatened an invasion and pressured Schuschnigg to resign. On March 12, the German army crossed the border into Austria, unopposed by the Austrian military. A plebiscite was held on April 10, with the ballot not kept secret and threats and coercion used to manipulate the vote, resulting in 99.7% approval for the Anschluss.

While the true opinions of the Austrian population are unknown, it is estimated that about 70% would have voted to preserve Austrian independence. The annexation of Austria demonstrated Hitler's aggressive territorial ambitions and was the first act of territorial expansion committed by Nazi Germany. It was followed by the targeting of Czechoslovakia, leading to the Munich Agreement in September 1938, which gave Nazi Germany control of the Sudetenland.

The Second Austrian Republic

The Second Republic adopted the 1920 constitution of the First Austrian Republic, as amended in 1929. The government was a coalition of the Austrian People's Party (corresponding to the prewar Christian Socialists) and the Socialists (Social Democrats and Revolutionary Socialists). This coalition was formed in proportion to the parties' strength in parliament, and the principle of proportional representation would remain important in Austrian politics.

The Second Republic struggled economically in its early years. After liberation from Nazi rule, the country faced economic chaos. Aid from the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, and later the Marshall Plan, helped the country survive. The government nationalized heavy industry and banking in 1946 and attempted to control inflation through a series of wage-price agreements. The Soviet Union's interference in the political and economic affairs in its occupation zone caused a migration of capital and industry to the western states, transforming the economic and social structure of the country.

In 1949, former Nazis were allowed to participate in a general election, in which the Austrian People's Party won 85 seats, the Socialists 76, and the Communists 4. In subsequent elections, the Union of Independents (later the Freedom Party) won around 16 seats, corresponding to the former German Nationalist group.

The Second Republic's early years were also marked by negotiations with the Allies over the terms of Austrian independence. In 1954, Austria was admitted as an equal partner to a conference of foreign ministers in Berlin, but the failure to agree on the future of Germany again hurt Austria's chances. However, in 1955, the Soviet Union unexpectedly invited the Austrian government for bilateral negotiations, offering to restore full Austrian sovereignty and evacuate occupation troops in exchange for a promise of permanent neutrality.

The Soviet Occupation

In the aftermath of World War II, Austria was divided into four occupation zones, with the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the United States, and France each taking control of a portion of the country. This division was a result of the Vienna Offensive, which ended with the declaration of Austrian independence from Nazi Germany on April 27, 1945. The Soviet commander Fyodor Tolbukhin's troops crossed into Austria on March 29, 1945, and the Soviet Union played a significant role in shaping the country's post-war future.

The Soviet Union's occupation of eastern Austria, including the states of Burgenland, Lower Austria, and Upper Austria, had a significant impact on the region. The Soviets took control of key economic assets, such as oil fields, and engaged in systematic sexual violence and plunder. The Red Army's reputation was damaged by its troops' conduct, and Soviet commanders struggled to contain desertion and plunder within their ranks. Despite these issues, the Soviets played a crucial role in re-establishing local administrations and appointing mayors, often following the advice of locals.

The Soviet Union also influenced the formation of the Austrian government during this period. On April 20, 1945, without consulting their Western allies, the Soviets instructed the Austrian politician Karl Renner to form a provisional government. Renner's cabinet took office on April 27 and declared Austria's independence from Nazi Germany, advocating for the creation of a democratic state. However, the Western allies were suspicious of Renner's government, believing it to be a puppet state of the Soviets. Despite this, Renner secured inter-party control by designating two Under-Secretaries of State from different parties in each ministry.

The Soviet Union's presence in Austria extended beyond the official end of the occupation. In 1946, the Soviets established the USIA, a conglomerate of expropriated Austrian businesses, which controlled a substantial share of the country's glass, steel, oil, and transportation industries. This economic influence persisted even as Austria moved towards independence, with the Soviets only relinquishing their claims in exchange for payments and oil fields in 1955.

The Austrian State Treaty

In the aftermath of World War II, Austria was jointly occupied by the four Allied powers and divided into four zones, with Vienna similarly subdivided. This occupation was a result of Austria's annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938, known as the Anschluss, and its role as a collaborator with Nazi Germany during the war. However, the Allies had also acknowledged the country's partial responsibility for its participation in the war in the 1943 Moscow Declaration and the 1945 Berlin Declaration.

The negotiations gained momentum after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953, which led to a "peace offensive" by his successors and a warming of relations known as the Khrushchev Thaw. The Soviet Union's desire to decrease international tensions and improve its image played a role in advancing the talks.

The final treaty included provisions for Soviet oilfield concessions and property rights in eastern Austria, as well as the transfer of assets of the Danube Shipping Company to the USSR. It also addressed the minority rights of the Slovene and Croat minorities in Austria. Crucially, Austria committed to perpetual neutrality, agreeing to stay out of military alliances such as NATO and the Warsaw Pact.

The signing of the Austrian State Treaty marked a significant turning point in Austria's history, restoring its independence and sovereignty while shaping its future role in the Cold War era as a buffer zone between the East and the West.

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