Turkey Trajectory: A Look At Afghanistan's Avian Visitors

Afghanistan and Turkey have a long history of diplomatic relations, with Afghanistan being the second country to recognise the Republic of Turkey in 1923. Since then, the two countries have established education and cultural exchange programs, with Turkish schools being set up in Afghanistan and Turkish army officers assisting in the training of Afghan military members.

Turkey has also been actively involved in Afghanistan's sociopolitical landscape, with the former taking command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and assuming leadership of NATO's Regional Command Central in Kabul. Turkey has also contributed to the reconstruction of Afghanistan, having trained over 1,900 members of the Afghan National Army and established schools for thousands of Afghan students.

However, the relationship between the two countries has not always been amicable. Turkey has been accused of pushing back and deporting Afghan refugees, with some sources claiming that Turkey has prevented 2.6 million people from crossing its borders. Despite Turkey's formal recognition of the principle of non-refoulement, it has been reported that Turkish authorities have used violence and coercion to prevent Afghans from entering the country.

Turkey's Engagement with Afghanistan: Turkey has been actively involved in Afghanistan, especially post-Taliban takeover, through economic projects, humanitarian aid, and diplomatic relations

Turkey has a long history of diplomatic relations with Afghanistan, which dates back to the Ottoman Empire. In 1921, Afghanistan became the second country to recognize the Republic of Turkey, and the two nations signed the Treaty of Alliance. In the following years, Turkey and Afghanistan established educational and cultural exchange programs, and Turkish schools were set up in Afghanistan.

Turkey has been actively involved in Afghanistan, particularly after the Taliban takeover in 2021. As the only NATO member with a diplomatic presence in Afghanistan, Turkey has been active on many fronts, including economic projects, humanitarian aid, and diplomatic relations.

Economic Projects

Turkey has been involved in several economic projects in Afghanistan, including the construction of the Kajaki hydroelectric dam in Helmand province. The project, which cost $160 million, was completed by the Turkish company 77 Construction. The dam's opening ceremony was attended by several senior Taliban officials, including deputy prime ministers Abdul Ghani Baradar and Abdul Salam Hanafi, as well as Turkey's ambassador to Kabul, Cihad Erginay.

Humanitarian Aid

Turkey has provided humanitarian aid to Afghanistan on several occasions, particularly in response to earthquakes and other natural disasters. In 2002, Turkey sent humanitarian aid to Afghanistan after a 5.9-magnitude earthquake struck the country. More recently, in 2023, the Turkish Red Crescent delivered aid to Afghanistan following a series of earthquakes in the country.

Diplomatic Relations

Turkey has maintained diplomatic relations with Afghanistan even after the Taliban's return to power in 2021, while many other countries cut ties. Turkey has advised the Taliban to form an inclusive government and ensure girls' education. Additionally, Turkey has emphasized the importance of stability in Afghanistan to prevent a refugee crisis, as it is already hosting millions of refugees from Syria.

Turkey has also played a role in mediating between Afghanistan and Pakistan, hosting several trilateral meetings and conferences to improve relations between the two countries.

Turkey's Role in the Afghanistan-Taliban Situation: Turkey has not formally recognized the Taliban but has hosted and engaged in talks with their acting foreign minister

Turkey has historically had strong relations with Afghanistan, and it is the only NATO member with a diplomatic presence in the country. Turkey has not withdrawn its troops from Afghanistan and has expressed its intentions to remain involved in the country's security and politics.

Turkey has not formally recognised the Taliban, but it has hosted and engaged in talks with their acting foreign minister, Amir Khan Muttaqi. In October 2021, a high-level delegation of Afghanistan's new Taliban rulers arrived in Ankara for talks with senior Turkish officials. This was the first meeting between the two groups since the Taliban seized control of Afghanistan. Turkey has also advised the Taliban to form an inclusive government and ensure girls' education under its rule.

Turkey's interests in Afghanistan are multi-faceted. Firstly, Turkey aims to leverage its role in Afghanistan to achieve broader geopolitical goals, such as improving its relations with the US and gaining influence in Central and South Asia. Secondly, Turkey seeks to prevent a potential refugee crisis by encouraging stability in Afghanistan. Turkey already hosts a large number of refugees and is concerned about a potential influx of Afghan migrants. Thirdly, Turkey has economic interests in Afghanistan, as demonstrated by the completion of the second phase of the Kajaki hydroelectric dam in Helmand province by a Turkish company.

Turkey's involvement in Afghanistan is not without risks. The Taliban has warned of severe consequences if Turkey remains in charge of security at Kabul Airport, and their hard-line attitude towards fellow Afghan Muslims of different ethnicities and sects raises concerns. Additionally, Turkey's ambitions in Afghanistan may not align with those of the US, and there is a possibility of Turkey instigating more problems than it solves.

Turkey's Refugee Crisis: Turkey hosts millions of refugees, including Afghans, and has been criticized for its pushback policies and deportations

Turkey hosts the largest refugee population in the world, with 3.6 million Syrian refugees as of 2019. In addition, Turkey has been a key transit point for asylum seekers aiming to cross to Europe, especially those fleeing war and persecution. As of 2017, Turkey also hosted 300,000 Afghans, with more than a third being unregistered.

Turkey's migrant crisis is a part of the wider European migrant crisis. In 2016, a deal between the EU and Turkey to tackle the migrant crisis came into effect, with the EU providing billions of Euros in funding for humanitarian support and migration management. However, Turkey has been criticized for its pushback policies and deportations.

Pushback Policies

Turkey has been criticized for its pushback policies, which have resulted in the deaths of migrants in the Aegean Sea. Pushbacks refer to the informal and often violent return of people against their will and outside any legal framework. In 2022, the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) singled out Greece for its pushback policies, which have resulted in "a disturbing pattern of threats, intimidation, violence and humiliation". The UN agency also warned that these practices risk becoming normalized and policy-based.

Turkey has also accused Greece of illegal pushback policies, stating that it is the main reason behind the recent rise in migrant deaths in the Aegean Sea.

Deportations

Turkey has been criticized for deporting refugees to countries where they face harm, including Syria and Afghanistan.

In 2019, Turkish authorities arbitrarily detained and deported dozens of Syrians to northern Syria, despite active hostilities there. Some of those deported were forced to sign forms, in some cases after being beaten or threatened.

Turkey has also deported Afghan refugees back to their now Taliban-controlled homeland. In 2021, Turkey began constructing a wall along its border with Iran to prevent Afghan refugees from entering the country. Afghan refugees have reported being beaten, harassed, and turned back by Turkish border forces.

Turkey's deportation policies have been fueled by rising anti-immigrant sentiments in the country, with many Turks feeling resentment towards the millions of refugees currently residing in Turkey.

Turkey-Afghanistan Historical Relations: Afghanistan and Turkey share a long history, with Turkey supporting Afghanistan's modernization efforts and Afghanistan recognizing Turkey as a republic early on

Afghanistan and Turkey have a long history of diplomatic relations, with Afghanistan recognizing Turkey as a republic in 1921 or 1923, shortly after it gained independence from the British. In the early 20th century, Afghanistan invited Turkish advisers across various fields to the country, and one of these advisers established the country's first public hospital in 1913. During the Turkish War of Independence, Afghan students studying in Anatolia joined the war and were martyred. Afghan women also donated their valuables to the Turkish cause for independence.

In 1920, prominent Ottoman Empire leader Djemal Pasha went to Kabul and stayed for a year to modernize the Afghan army. In 1921, the Treaty of Alliance was signed, marking the establishment of formal diplomatic relations between the two countries. As per the treaty, Turkey agreed to send a mission of teachers and army officers to contribute to reform efforts in Afghanistan. Turkey also helped Afghanistan draft its first constitution in 1923, which was based on Kemal Atatürk's model.

In 1928, Afghanistan and Turkey signed a Treaty of Friendship and Political and Economic Cooperation, which led to Turkey sponsoring the foundation of an administrative school and launching a medical training program in Afghanistan. Turkish-Afghan ties remained strong until the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.

Turkey has also played a crucial role in Afghanistan's modernization efforts, especially in establishing modern state structures and public institutions in the fields of administration, military, culture, education, and health. Turkey has provided extensive development assistance to Afghanistan, mainly in the fields of education, infrastructure, and health. It has also trained thousands of Afghan military and police officers.

Today, the two countries continue to have close relations, with Turkey being described as Afghanistan's "one and only true, best friend." Turkey has participated in the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and has been involved in training and equipping the Afghan security forces and military, as well as providing non-combat security missions and logistical operations. Turkish construction firms have also undertaken reconstruction projects in Afghanistan, particularly in the fields of education, health, and agriculture.

Turkey's Security Involvement in Afghanistan: Turkey has contributed to security and state-building in Afghanistan, including training Afghan military and police personnel

Turkey has been an important partner in Afghanistan's security and state-building efforts, particularly in training its military and police personnel. Turkey's involvement in Afghanistan is rooted in its historical ties with the country, which span several centuries and various empires.

Turkey has contributed to security and stability in Afghanistan in several ways. Firstly, it has provided extensive training to Afghan military and police officers, offering scholarships and capacity-building programs. This training has aimed to strengthen Afghanistan's security forces and enable them to effectively combat terrorism and extremism. Additionally, Turkish troops have been involved in non-combat missions as part of the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and its successor, the Resolute Support Mission (RSM). Turkey has also played a key role in securing and managing the Hamid Karzai International Airport in Kabul, which is critical for the Afghan government to maintain control of major population centers.

Turkey's involvement in Afghanistan extends beyond security. It has established educational and cultural exchange programs, including the establishment of Turkish schools in Afghanistan. Turkey has also sought to increase its soft power in the country, particularly among the Turkish-speaking minority groups such as Uzbeks and Turkmens. This has included expanding Turkish scholarships, cultural consulting, broadcasting Turkish media content, and teaching the Turkish language.

Turkey's role in Afghanistan is driven by multiple factors. Firstly, as the most prominent Muslim-majority member of NATO, Turkey has sought to advance its influence and pursue its national interests. Additionally, Turkey aims to improve its relations with the West, particularly the United States, and repair the strained ties of recent years. Turkey also seeks to gain leverage vis-à-vis Europe, especially regarding migration issues. Furthermore, Turkey wants to play a role in the reconstruction of Afghanistan and gain a foothold in the geopolitics of Central and South Asia.

However, Turkey's ambitions in Afghanistan face several challenges and constraints. The Taliban, who are now the de facto rulers of Afghanistan, have not fully acquiesced to Turkey's demands, particularly regarding a continued security role. Turkey's presence at the Kabul airport, for example, has been a point of contention, with the Taliban viewing a prolonged Turkish military presence as an occupation. Additionally, Turkey's efforts to include Turkic figures in Afghanistan's cabinet have not been met. Public opinion in Turkey is also a factor, with casualty aversion and financial costs impacting political support for long-term involvement in Afghanistan.

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